The reputation of Irish artists for excellence11 in these costly12 productions became so extended throughout Christian14 Europe in the early ages, that at the request of many nations Ireland sent forth15 numbers of her most cultured artists as teachers and scribes to the great foreign schools and colleges; and numerous examples of skilled Irish work are still existing in Continental17 Libraries, where they are held as amongst the most sacred of the national treasures. For a full and comprehensive illustration of this subject it would be impossible to over-estimate the artistic and historic value of Mr. Westwood’s magnificent book on Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts. The volume contains facsimiles from all the principal illuminated Celtic manuscripts of Europe, executed with the most scrupulous18 care, chiefly by Mr. Westwood himself, the majority of them with the aid of a magnifying glass, so minute and delicate are the lines of ornamentation to be represented. In fact, for accuracy of information and richness of illustration, the volume surpasses anything yet published on Celtic art in the United Kingdom, and may claim equality with the grand, but enormously expensive work of Count Bastard19, on early French Manuscripts. Mr. Westwood, in a learned preliminary dissertation20, gives his views on the origin and development of Hiberno-Saxon art during the first thousand years of the Christian era, and finds in the ornamentation, as observed by Kemble and others, a distinct Opus Hibernicum and an Opus Anglicum, but the Irish the more perfect of the two, and wholly different from Continental art of the same era.
The earliest manuscripts of Greece and Rome show nothing like this distinctive Celtic art; nor the Italian mosaics21, nor the wall paintings of Herculaneum or Pompeii—beautiful as are the representations of the human figure found there; nor does Byzantine art afford any similar types. From whence, then, did the Irish, the acknowledged founders22 of Celtic art in Europe, derive23 their ideas of ornamentation? This is one of the historical mysteries which, like the origin of the Round Towers, still awaits solution. One must travel a long way, even to the far East, before finding in the decorations of the ancient Hindoo temples anything approaching to the typical idea that runs through all Irish ornamentation. It is, however, an incontrovertible fact, and one proved289 to demonstration24 by Mr. Westwood’s learning, labour, and researches, that a time when the pictorial25 art was almost extinct in Italy and Greece, and indeed scarcely existed in other parts of Europe—namely, from the fifth to the end of the eighth century—a style of art had been originated, cultivated, and brought into a most marvellous state of perfection in Ireland absolutely distinct from that of any other part of the civilized27 world; and which being carried abroad by Irish and Saxon missionaries28 was adopted and imitated in the schools of Charlemagne, and in all the other great schools and monasteries29 founded by them upon the Continent.
In the middle of the ninth century the influence of the artists of Germany reacted on the productions of England, and in consequence of the more frequent communications of learned men with Rome, classical models began to be adopted, floral decorations were introduced, and figures in the Byzantine style. With these the Irish ornamentation was combined, principally in the framework of the design. Then it gradually disappeared from England, where it was replaced by Franco-Saxon and Teutonic art; so that after the tenth century Mr. Westwood has not found any Anglo-Saxon manuscript executed in the Lindisfarne or Irish style. But it remained for several centuries longer in use in Ireland, though the ornamental30 details exhibit little of the extreme delicacy31 of the earlier productions. With reference to these, Mr. Digby Wyatt observes that, in delicacy of handling and minute but faultless execution, the whole range of palæography offers nothing comparable to the early Irish manuscripts, especially “The Book of Kells,” the most marvellous of them all. One cannot wonder, therefore, that Giraldus Cambrensis, when over in Ireland in the reign16 of Henry II., on being shown an illuminated Irish manuscript, exclaimed, “This is more like the work of angels than of men!”
The peculiarities32 which characterize true Celtic art, whether in stone, metal work, or manuscript illumination, consist in the excessive and minute elaborations of intricate ornamental details, such as the spirals, the interlaced ribands, and the entwined serpents and other animal forms, so familiar to the students of our national art treasures in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy. These forms are invariably found in all Irish decoration. The initial letters and ornamentations of the ancient manuscripts are reproduced in the gigantic stone crosses and the more delicate metal work of the shrines34 and reliquaries; and from this identity of ornamentation the age can be determined35 of all art monuments or remains36, and objects readily classified as cotemporaneous. The Irish adhered with wonderful fidelity37 to their peculiar art ideas for at least eight hundred years; and while the Saxons coquetted with Frankish art, and finally gave themselves up wholly to290 Norman influence, the Irish continued their exclusive devotion to the ancient and national Celtic type. Intensely national, indeed, were those early artists; they gave ideas to the world, but received none in exchange. In their pictures Goliath appears as an Irish warrior38, and David bears an Irish harp39 in his hands while our Lord Himself, in one of the Irish sculptures, is represented wearing the Irish dress. When the nation fell under Norman sway in the twelfth century, Norman ideas naturally became triumphant40; but everything that is most beautiful and interesting in antique Irish art belongs to the pre-Norman period—the gold ornaments41, the gorgeous manuscripts, such as the Gospels of Durrow and of Kells; the grandest of the sculptured crosses, Cormac’s Chapel42, that architectural gem43 of Western Europe; the richly decorated shrines, such as that of St. Monchan, “the most important ancient shrine33 now in existence in these islands,” Mr. Westwood states; and specially interesting to us Irish, from the recorded fact that it was covered with pure gold by Roderick O’Connor, the last king of Ireland, and was, as the Annals state, the most beautiful piece of art ever made in Erin. All these evidences of high cultivation44 and artistic skill were in existence long before the Norman adventurers set foot on our shores. Irish art, however, died out with Irish Nationality; and in two centuries or so, after the Norman Conquest, it ceased to exist, and was replaced by the pseudo-Roman or Irish Romanesque style. Irish art can be easily traced throughout the Continent by the peculiar ornamentation which characterized it; and wherever, amongst the early manuscripts in foreign libraries, one is found surpassing all the rest in the singular beauty and firmness of the writing, and the exquisite45 delicacy of the minute and elaborate illuminations, there at once an Irish hand is recognized as worker, or an Irish intellect as teacher. The same symbols and ideas run through all of them—there are the same strange, elongated46, contorted, intertwined figures; the same rich mosaics of interlaced lines—so minute, so delicate, so rich in brilliant colours, that the border of the page seems powdered with crushed jewels. There is something almost melancholy47 in this devotion to a species of art in which there was nothing to stimulate48 the feelings or to warm the heart. No representation of nature’s glories in tree or flower, or the splendour of human beauty; the artist’s aim being rather, it would seem, to kill the human in him, by forcing his genius to work only on the cold abstractions of spirals and curves, and endless geometrical involutions, and the infinite monotony of those interlaced lines, still coiling on, for ever and ever, through the centuries, like the windings49 of the serpent of evil, which they were meant to symbolize50, through the successive generations of our fated humanity. Truly, these artists offered up the sacrifice of love. Their lives and the labour of their lives were given291 humbly51, silently, reverently52 to God, and the glory of God’s Word. They had no other aim in life, and when the work was done, a work so beautiful that even now the world cannot equal it, there was no vainglorious53 boast of himself came from the lips of the artist worker, but the manuscript ends with some simple devotional words, his name, and the desire to be remembered as the writer, like the orate pro13 me on the ancient tombstones; this was all he asked or hoped for in return for the years of youth and life he had incarnated54 in the illuminated pages of the Gospels. For in those early ages art had no existence save in union with religion. Humanity brought together all its most precious ointments55 to pour upon the feet of Jesus. In Ireland especially—the Island of Saints—whatever genius could devise or the hand of the artist could execute was lavished56 upon some work that would recall the presence of God to the people, stimulate His worship, or make known His word; upon the Psalters, the Gospels, the crosses, the costly shrines, the jewelled cases for a saint’s relics57, the golden covers for the holy books. But nothing of that period has come down to us that shows a luxury in domestic life. The Word of God was shrined in gold, made rich with gems59 and enamels60, but the people lived their old simple life in their old rude huts; and even the kings gave their wealth, not to erect61 palaces, but to build churches, to endow abbeys, to help the cause of God, and speed the holy men who were His ministers, in their crusade against evil, ignorance and darkness.
It is no idle boast to say that the Irish were the teachers of Europe from the seventh to the tenth century in art and religion. Mr. Westwood has visited all the great libraries of England and the Continent and found abundant evidence that Irish art, or Hiberno-Saxon art, was diffused62 over Europe during that period. The Greek and Latin manuscripts are not illuminated, but are adorned63 with intercalated pictures; Irish art differs from them in many respects—amongst others, in having the figures and rich ornamentations printed on the leaves and borders of the book itself. He has given facsimiles from Irish manuscripts now existing in the libraries of Oxford64, Cambridge, Durham, Lichfield, Salisbury, Lambeth, the British Museum, and other places; and, passing to the Continent, has laid under contribution the great libraries of Paris, Rouen, Boulogne, St. Gall65, Milan, Rome, Munich, Darmstadt, Stockholm, Copenhagen, and even St. Petersburg, and thus proved the excellence to which Irish artists, or Saxon artists educated in Irish schools, attained66 more than a thousand years ago. Nor is it strange that Ireland should have been the teacher, considering its early Christianity, which had made some progress amongst the people even in St. Jerome’s time; a little later amongst the Britons; but at the end of the sixth century Augustine and his monks67 found the stolid68 Anglo-Saxons292 still in the bonds of their ancient paganism and Wodenism. The Celtic race received the Christian faith gladly as early as the fourth century, but it was a difficult matter to bring light to the Saxon soul. It has at all times proved itself rather opaque69 in nature. The Saxon tribes of Germany did not renounce70 their idols71 till forced to it by the strong coercive power and keen sword of Charlemagne, in the latter half of the eighth century.
With Christianity came to Ireland the knowledge of letters; at least no older inscription72 has been found than that on the pillar stone of Lugnadon, St. Patrick’s nephew, which may still be seen beside the ruin of St. Patrick’s oratory73 in one of the beautiful islands of Lough Corrib;11 and the oldest manuscript existing in Ireland is the Book of Armagh, a copy of St. Jerome’s Latin version of the Gospels written in the old Roman letters, and very valuable for the beauty of the writing and the various drawings it contains. Learning was at once consecrated74 to the service of God in those early days, and to multiply copies of the Gospels was the praiseworthy and devout75 task of the first great teachers and missionaries. The Book of Durrow and the Book of Kells, both of the early part of the sixth century, are believed to be the work of St. Columba himself. The latter, the Book of Kells, has filled all critics with wonder and admiration76. It is more decorated than any existing copy of the Gospels, and is pronounced by learned authorities to be “the most beautiful manuscript in existence of so early a date, and the most magnificent specimen77 of penmanship and illumination in the Western World.” They are both written in the Latin uncial character, common to Europe at the time; and here it may be noticed, in passing, that the so-called Irish alphabet is simply the Latin alphabet modified by the first missionaries to suit the Irish sounds, as Ulphila, the apostle of the Goths, invented an alphabet of mingled78 Greek and Latin characters, in order to enable him to make his translation of the Gospels into Gothic; and as the Greek missionaries invented the Russian alphabet, which is a modified form of the Greek, for a like purpose. That the Irish should retain the old form of the Latin letters, while most of the other nations of Europe have discarded it, is to be regretted, as nothing would facilitate the study of Irish so much at the present day, when one has so little leisure to spell out with much painful endeavour the barbarous symbols of a bygone age, as the adoption79 of the modern English alphabet. The first Irish book that was ever printed appeared in 1571, and is now in the Bodleian Library. It is a catechism of Irish grammar, and the Irish alphabet has suffered no modification80 or improvement since. It was about the end of293 the sixth century that the fame of Irish learning and the skill of Irish artists began to extend to England, and from thence to the Continent; and Irish scribes were employed to make copies of the Gospels and teach the splendid art of illumination in the English monasteries. From that period till the end of the ninth century the Irish were a power in Europe from their learning and piety—eminent in Greek as well as Latin, and the great teachers of scholastic81 theology to the Christian world. The Gospels of Lindisfarne, executed by monks of Iona in the seventh century, and now “the glory of the British Museum,” form a most important element in the early history of Celtic art, as this book seems to have been the principal model for succeeding artists.
In the splendid folio copy of the Gospels at Copenhagen of the tenth century, supposed to have been brought to Denmark by King Canute, the figure of St. Matthew seated, while another saint draws back a curtain, is copied from the Gospels of Lindisfarne, while the border is in the tenth century style. The Gospels of St. Chad, now in Lichfield Library, are in the Irish style of the eighth century, and are very noticeable as having marginal notes in Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and ancient British, the latter being the oldest specimen of the ancient British language now in existence. The illuminations also are copied from the Lindisfarne book. St. Chad, it is known, was educated in Ireland, in the school of St. Finian. There are Irish Gospels at Durham of the eighth century. The Gospels of Mac-Regal are at Oxford, and the Gospels of Mac-Duran, the smallest and most beautiful known, are in the Archbishop’s palace at Lambeth. As Saxon art progressed and became influenced by Roman models, the Irish scribes were chiefly employed wherever elegance83, harmony of colour, and extreme delicacy of touch were particularly requisite84, as in the borders and initial letters. Thus, the Psalter of St. Augustine, said to be from Rome, and which resembles in style the manuscript Virgil of the fifth century, in the Vatican, is framed in pure Celtic art. On the Continent, also, the borders of the great manuscripts were generally confined to Irish hands. A Latin copy of the Gospels at Treves, evidently produced by one of the establishments founded by the Irish upon the Rhine, is remarkable for a combination of Celtic, Teutonic, and Franco-Byzantine art. The borders are Irish while the figures are Byzantine. These illuminated borders have the glitter and radiance of a setting of jewels, and are thus admirably suited to fulfil the true object of all ornamentation, which Mr. Ruskin defines as being “beautiful in its place, and perfect in its adaptation to the purpose for which it was employed.”
In the sixth century St. Gall, born in Ireland, accompanied St. Columbanus to the Continent, and founded the monastery85 in Switzerland that bears his name. Here many interesting manu294scripts and fragments are still preserved, remarkable for the old Irish marginal notes to the Latin text. Those are considered by philologists86 of such importance that thirteen quarto plates and facsimiles from them are given by Dr. Ferdinand Keller in the Zurich Society’s Transactions. An interesting relic58 of an Irish saint is also preserved in the Cathedral of Wurtzburg—a copy of the Gospels of St. Kilian, martyred in 689, and which was found stained with his blood on opening his tomb about fifty years after.
Thus, the Irish can be tracked, as it were, across Europe by their illuminated footsteps. They were emphatically the witnesses of God, the light-bearers through the dark ages, and above all, the faithful guardians87 and preservers of God’s sacred Word. A hundred years before Alfred came to Ireland to be educated, and went back to civilize26 his native country by the knowledge he had acquired there, the Christian schools of Germany, under the direction of Irishmen, had been founded by Charlemagne. Through France, along the Rhine, through Switzerland, Italy, and Spain, the Irish missionaries taught and worked, founding schools and monasteries, and illuminating88 by their learning the darkest pages of European history. One of the great treasures of the Imperial Library of Paris is a beautiful Irish copy of the Latin Gospels. The College of St. Isidore, at Rome, possesses many Irish manuscripts—one of them is a Psalter, folio size, written throughout in letters a quarter of an inch long, and which is considered to be the finest of the later works of the Irish school. The celebrated89 Golden Gospels of Stockholm are of Hiberno-Saxon art of the ninth century. This book has a singular history. It was stolen from England, and disappeared for ages, but finally was discovered at Mantua in the seventeenth century, and purchased for the Royal Library at Stockholm. St. Petersburg also possesses a highly illuminated copy of the Gospels, which was taken from France at the time of the great Revolution, and found its way to the far North. It is a perfect and beautiful specimen of the Irish style of the eight century, and the initial letters can only be compared to those of the Book of Kells. All these Irish manuscript Gospels are, without exception, copies of St. Jerome’s Latin version. No Irish translation of the Gospels has ever been found. Learning was evidently considered a sacred thing, indispensable for the priesthood, but not necessary for the masses; yet it seems strange that while the learned and pious90 Irish saints and missionaries were devoting their lives to multiplying copies of the Gospels for other nations, and disseminating91 them over Europe, they never thought of giving the people of their own land the Word of God to read in their own native tongue. The leading Teutonic races, on the contrary, with their free spirit, were not satisfied with accepting the doctrines92 of the faith, simply as an act of obedience93 to their teachers. They demanded the right of295 private judgment94, the exercise of individual reason, and the Gospels were translated into Gothic as early as the fourth century by Bishop82 Ulphila for the use of the Gothic nation.
This remarkable book, called the “Codex Argenteus,” is now in the Royal Library of Upsala, having, after many dangers and vicissitudes95, at last found its way to the people who hold themselves the true descendants of the Goths, and whose king still bears the proud title of “King of the Swedes, Goths, and Vandals;” and an edition of it, with annotations96, has been published by the learned Professor Andreas Uppstrom, of Upsala.
Towards the close of the tenth century the Frankish style of ornamentation, a blending of the classical and the Byzantine, had almost entirely97 superseded98 the beautiful and delicate Celtic art both in England and on the Continent, and about the fifteenth century it disappeared even from our own Ireland, the country of its origin. The gorgeous missals and illuminated Gospels, instinct with life, genius, holy reverence99, and patient love, were destined100 to be replaced soon after by the dull mechanism101 of print; while Protestantism used all its new-found strength to destroy that innate102 tendency of our nature which seeks to manifest religious fervour, faith, and zeal103 by costly offerings and sacrifices. The golden-bordered holy books, the sculptured crosses, the jewelled shrines were crushed under the heel of Cromwell’s troopers; the majestic104 and beautiful abbeys were desecrated105 and cast down to ruin, while beside them rose the mean and ugly structures of the Reformed faith, as if the annihilation of all beauty were then considered to be the most acceptable homage106 which man could offer to the God who created all beauty, and fitted the human soul to enjoy and manifest the spiritual, mystic, and eternal loveliness of form, and colour, and symmetry.
Since that mournful period when the conquering iconoclasts107 cast down the temples and crushed the spirit of our people, there has been no revival108 of art in Ireland. It is not wonderful, therefore, that we cling with so much of fond, though sad, admiration to the beautiful memorials of the past, and welcome with warm appreciation109 the efforts of able, learned and distinguished110 men to illustrate2 and preserve them, as in this splendid and costly book which Mr. Westwood has contributed to Celtic art.
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1
illustrates
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的第三人称单数 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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legendary
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| adj.传奇（中）的，闻名遐迩的；n.传奇（文学） | |
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grotesque
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| adj.怪诞的，丑陋的；n.怪诞的图案，怪人（物） | |
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specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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illuminated
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| adj.被照明的；受启迪的 | |
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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pro
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| n.赞成，赞成的意见，赞成者 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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continental
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| adj.大陆的，大陆性的，欧洲大陆的 | |
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scrupulous
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| adj.审慎的，小心翼翼的，完全的，纯粹的 | |
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bastard
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| n.坏蛋，混蛋；私生子 | |
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dissertation
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| n.（博士学位）论文，学术演讲，专题论文 | |
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mosaics
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| n.马赛克( mosaic的名词复数 )；镶嵌；镶嵌工艺；镶嵌图案 | |
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founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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pictorial
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| adj.绘画的；图片的；n．画报 | |
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civilize
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| vt.使文明，使开化 (=civilise) | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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missionaries
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| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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shrines
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| 圣地，圣坛，神圣场所( shrine的名词复数 ) | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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fidelity
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| n.忠诚，忠实；精确 | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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harp
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| n.竖琴；天琴座 | |
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triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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gem
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| n.宝石，珠宝；受爱戴的人 [同]jewel | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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elongated
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| v.延长，加长( elongate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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melancholy
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| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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stimulate
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| vt.刺激，使兴奋；激励，使…振奋 | |
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windings
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| （道路、河流等）蜿蜒的，弯曲的( winding的名词复数 )； 缠绕( wind的现在分词 )； 卷绕； 转动（把手） | |
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symbolize
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| vt.作为...的象征，用符号代表 | |
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humbly
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| adv. 恭顺地，谦卑地 | |
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reverently
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| adv.虔诚地 | |
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vainglorious
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| adj.自负的；夸大的 | |
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incarnated
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| v.赋予（思想、精神等）以人的形体( incarnate的过去式和过去分词 )；使人格化；体现；使具体化 | |
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ointments
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| n.软膏( ointment的名词复数 )；扫兴的人；煞风景的事物；药膏 | |
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lavished
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| v.过分给予，滥施( lavish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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relic
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| n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物 | |
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gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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enamels
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| 搪瓷( enamel的名词复数 )； 珐琅； 釉药； 瓷漆 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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diffused
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| 散布的，普及的，扩散的 | |
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adorned
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| [计]被修饰的 | |
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Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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gall
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| v.使烦恼，使焦躁，难堪；n.磨难 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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stolid
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| adj.无动于衷的，感情麻木的 | |
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opaque
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| adj.不透光的；不反光的，不传导的；晦涩的 | |
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renounce
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| v.放弃；拒绝承认，宣布与…断绝关系 | |
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idols
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| 偶像( idol的名词复数 )； 受崇拜的人或物； 受到热爱和崇拜的人或物； 神像 | |
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inscription
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| n.（尤指石块上的）刻印文字，铭文，碑文 | |
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oratory
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| n.演讲术；词藻华丽的言辞 | |
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consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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adoption
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| n.采用，采纳，通过；收养 | |
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modification
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| n.修改，改进，缓和，减轻 | |
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scholastic
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| adj.学校的，学院的，学术上的 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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elegance
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| n.优雅；优美，雅致；精致，巧妙 | |
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requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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philologists
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| n.语文学( philology的名词复数 ) | |
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guardians
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| 监护人( guardian的名词复数 )； 保护者，维护者 | |
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illuminating
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| a.富于启发性的，有助阐明的 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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disseminating
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| 散布，传播( disseminate的现在分词 ) | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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vicissitudes
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| n.变迁，世事变化；变迁兴衰( vicissitude的名词复数 )；盛衰兴废 | |
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annotations
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| n.注释( annotation的名词复数 )；附注 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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desecrated
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| 毁坏或亵渎( desecrate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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homage
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| n.尊敬，敬意，崇敬 | |
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107
iconoclasts
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| n.攻击传统观念的人( iconoclast的名词复数 )；反对崇拜圣像者 | |
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108
revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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109
appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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