The Japanese have always been an imitative nation, quick to absorb and utilise the religion, art, and social life of China, and, having set their own national seal upon what they have borrowed from the Celestial5 Kingdom, to look elsewhere for material that should strengthen and advance their position. This imitative quality is one of Japan's most marked characteristics. She has ever been loath6 to impart information to others, but ready at all times to gain access to any form of knowledge likely to make for her advancement7. In the fourteenth century Kenkō wrote in his Tsure-dzure-gusa:[Pg xii] "Nothing opens one's eyes so much as travel, no matter where," and the twentieth-century Japanese has put this excellent advice into practice. He has travelled far and wide, and has made good use of his varied8 observations. Japan's power of imitation amounts to genius. East and West have contributed to her greatness, and it is a matter of surprise to many of us that a country so long isolated9 and for so many years bound by feudalism should, within a comparatively short space of time, master our Western system of warfare10, as well as many of our ethical11 and social ideas, and become a great world-power. But Japan's success has not been due entirely12 to clever imitation, neither has her place among the foremost nations been accomplished13 with such meteor-like rapidity as some would have us suppose.
We hear a good deal about the New Japan to-day, and are too prone14 to forget the significance of the Old upon which the present régime has been founded. Japan learnt from England, Germany and America all the tactics of modern warfare. She established an efficient army and navy on Western lines; but it must be remembered that Japan's great heroes of to-day, Togo and Oyama, still have in their veins16 something of the old samurai spirit, still reflect through their modernity something of the meaning of Bushido. The Japanese character is still Japanese and not Western. Her greatness is to be found in her patriotism17, in her loyalty18 and whole-hearted love of her country. Shintōism has taught her to revere19 the mighty20 dead; Buddhism21, besides adding to her religious ideals, has contributed to her literature and art, and Christianity has had its effect in introducing all manner of beneficent social reforms.
There are many conflicting theories in regard to the racial origin of the Japanese people, and we have no[Pg xiii] definite knowledge on the subject. The first inhabitants of Japan were probably the Ainu, an Aryan people who possibly came from North-Eastern Asia at a time when the distance separating the Islands from the mainland was not so great as it is to-day. The Ainu were followed by two distinct Mongol invasions, and these invaders22 had no difficulty in subduing23 their predecessors24; but in course of time the Mongols were driven northward25 by Malays from the Philippines. "By the year A.D. 500 the Ainu, the Mongol, and the Malay elements in the population had become one nation by much the same process as took place in England after the Norman Conquest. To the national characteristics it may be inferred that the Ainu contributed the power of resistance, the Mongol the intellectual qualities, and the Malay that handiness and adaptability26 which are the heritage of sailor-men."[1] Such authorities as Baelz and Rein27 are of the opinion that the Japanese are Mongols, and although they have intermarried with the Ainu, "the two nations," writes Professor B. H. Chamberlain, "are as distinct as the whites and reds in North America." In spite of the fact that the Ainu is looked down upon in Japan, and regarded as a hairy aboriginal28 of interest to the anthropologist29 and the showman, a poor despised creature, who worships the bear as the emblem30 of strength and fierceness, he has, nevertheless, left his mark upon Japan. Fuji was possibly a corruption31 of Huchi, or Fuchi, the Ainu Goddess of Fire, and there is no doubt that these aborigines originated a vast number of geographical32 names, particularly in the north of the main island, that are recognisable to this day. We can also trace Ainu influence in regard to certain Japanese superstitions33, such as the belief in the Kappa, or river monster.
[Pg xiv]
The Chinese called Japan Jih-pén, "the place the sun comes from," because the archipelago was situated34 on the east of their own kingdom, and our word Japan and Nippon are corruptions35 of Jih-pén. Marco Polo called the country Zipangu, and one ancient name describes it as "The-Luxuriant-Reed-Plains-the-land-of-Fresh -Rice-Ears-of-a-Thousand-Autumns-of-Long-Five-Hundred-Autumns." We are not surprised to find that such a very lengthy36 and descriptive title is not used by the Japanese to-day; but it is of interest to know that the old word for Japan, Yamato, is still frequently employed, Yamato Damashii signifying "The Spirit of Unconquerable Japan." Then, again, we still hear Japan referred to as The Island of the Dragon-fly. We are told in the old Japanese Chronicles that the Emperor, in 630 B.C., ascended37 a hill called Waki Kamu no Hatsuma, from which he was able to view the land on all sides. He was much impressed by the beauty of the country, and said that it resembled "a dragon-fly licking its hinder parts," and the Island received the name of Akitsu-Shima ("Island of the Dragon-fly").
The Kojiki, or "Records of Ancient Matters," completed A.D. 712, deals with the early traditions of the Japanese race, commencing with the myths, the basis of Shintōism, and gradually becoming more historical until it terminates in A.D. 628. Dr. W. G. Aston writes in A History of Japanese Literature: "The Kojiki, however valuable it may be for research into the mythology38, the manners, the language, and the legends of early Japan, is a very poor production, whether we consider it as literature or as a record of facts. As history it cannot be compared with the Nihongi,[2] a contemporary work[Pg xv] in Chinese; while the language is a strange mixture of Chinese and Japanese, which there has been little attempt to endue39 with artistic40 quality. The circumstances under which it was composed are a partial explanation of the very curious style in which it is written. We are told that a man named Yasumaro, learned in Chinese, took it down from the lips of a certain Hiyeda no Are, who had such a wonderful memory that he 'could repeat with his mouth whatever was placed before his eyes, and record in his heart whatever struck his ears.'" It is possible that Hiyeda no Are was one of the Kataribe or "Reciters," whose duty it was to recite "ancient words" before the Mikado at the Court of Nara on certain State occasions.
The Kojiki and the Nihongi are the sources from which we learn the early myths and legends of Japan. In their pages we are introduced to Izanagi and Izanami, Ama-terasu, Susa-no-o, and numerous other divinities, and these august beings provide us with stories that are quaint2, beautiful, quasi-humorous, and sometimes a little horrible. What could be more naïve than the love-making of Izanagi and Izanami, who conceived the idea of marrying each other after seeing the mating of two wagtails? In this ancient myth we trace the ascendency of the male over the female, an ascendency maintained in Japan until recent times, fostered, no doubt, by Kaibara's Onna Daigaku, "The Greater Learning for Women." But in the protracted41 quarrel between the Sun Goddess and her brother, the Impetuous Male, the old chroniclers lay emphasis upon the villainy of Susa-no-o; and Ama-terasu, a curious mingling42 of the divine and the feminine, is portrayed43 as an ideal type of Goddess. She is revealed preparing for warfare, making fortifications by stamping upon the ground, and she is also depicted[Pg xvi] peeping out of her rock-cavern and gazing in the Sacred Mirror. Ama-terasu is the central figure in Japanese mythology, for it is from the Sun Goddess that the Mikados are descended44. In the cycle of legends known as the Period of the Gods, we are introduced to the Sacred Treasures, we discover the origin of the Japanese dance, and in imagination wander through the High Plain of Heaven, set foot upon the Floating Bridge, enter the Central Land of Reed-Plains, peep into the Land of Yomi, and follow Prince Fire-Fade into the Palace of the Sea King.
Early heroes and warriors46 are always regarded as minor47 divinities, and the very nature of Shintōism, associated with ancestor worship, has enriched those of Japan with many a fascinating legend. For strength, skill, endurance, and a happy knack48 of overcoming all manner of difficulties by a subtle form of quick-witted enterprise, the Japanese hero must necessarily take a high position among the famous warriors of other countries. There is something eminently49 chivalrous50 about the heroes of Japan that calls for special notice. The most valiant51 men are those who champion the cause of the weak or redress52 evil and tyranny of every kind, and we trace in the Japanese hero, who is very far from being a crude swashbuckler, these most excellent qualities. He is not always above criticism, and sometimes we find in him a touch of cunning, but such a characteristic is extremely rare, and very far from being a national trait. An innate53 love of poetry and the beautiful has had its refining influence upon the Japanese hero, with the result that his strength is combined with gentleness.
Benkei is one of the most lovable of Japanese heroes. He possessed54 the strength of many men, his tact15 amounted to genius, his sense of humour was strongly[Pg xvii] developed, and the most loving of Japanese mothers could not have shown more gentleness when his master's wife gave birth to a child. When Yoshitsune and Benkei, at the head of the Minamoto host, had finally vanquished55 the Taira at the sea-fight of Dan-no-ura, their success awakened56 the jealousy57 of the Shōgun, and the two great warriors were forced to fly the country. We follow them across the sea, over mountains, outwitting again and again their numerous enemies. At Matsue a great army was sent out against these unfortunate warriors. Camp-fires stretched in a glittering line about the last resting-place of Yoshitsune and Benkei. In an apartment were Yoshitsune with his wife and little child. Death stood in the room, too, and it was better that Death should come at the order of Yoshitsune than at the command of the enemy without the gate. His child was killed by an attendant, and, holding his beloved wife's head under his left arm, he plunged58 his sword deep into her throat. Having accomplished these things, Yoshitsune committed hara-kiri. Benkei, however, faced the enemy. He stood with his great legs apart, his back pressed against a rock. When the dawn came he was still standing59 with his legs apart, a thousand arrows in that brave body of his. Benkei was dead, but his was a death too strong to fall. The sun shone on a man who was a true hero, who had ever made good his words: "Where my lord goes, to victory or to death, I shall follow him."
Japan is a mountainous country, and in such countries we expect to find a race of hardy60, brave men, and certainly the Land of the Rising Sun has given us many a warrior45 worthy61 to rank with the Knights62 of King Arthur. More than one legend deals with the destruction of devils and goblins, and of the rescue of[Pg xviii] maidens63 who had the misfortune to be their captives. One hero slays64 a great monster that crouched65 upon the roof of the Emperor's palace, another despatches the Goblin of Oyeyama, another thrusts his sword through a gigantic spider, and another slays a serpent. All the Japanese heroes, whatever enterprise they may be engaged in, reveal the spirit of high adventure, and that loyalty of purpose, that cool disregard for danger and death which are still characteristic of the Japanese people to-day.
"The Bamboo-Cutter and the Moon-Maiden" (Chapter III) is adapted from a tenth-century story called Taketori Monogatari, and is the earliest example of the Japanese romance. The author is unknown, but he must have had an intimate knowledge of court life in Kyōto. All the characters in this very charming legend are Japanese, but most of the incidents have been borrowed from China, a country so rich in picturesque66 fairy-lore. Mr. F. V. Dickins writes concerning the Taketori Monogatari: "The art and grace of the story of the Lady Kaguya are native, its unstrained pathos67, its natural sweetness, are its own, and in simple charm and purity of thought and language it has no rival in the fiction of either the Middle Kingdom or of the Dragon-fly Land."
In studying Japanese legend one is particularly struck by its universality and also by its very sharp contrasts. Most nations have deified the sun and moon, the stars and mountains, and all the greatest works of Nature; but the Japanese have described the red blossoms of azaleas as the fires of the Gods, and the white snow of Fuji as the garments of Divine Beings. Their legend, on the one hand at any rate, is essentially68 poetical69, and those who worshipped Mount Fuji also had ghostly tales to tell about the smallest insect. Too much stress[Pg xix] cannot be laid upon Japan's love of Nature. The early myths recorded in the Kojiki and Nihongi are of considerable interest, but they cannot be compared with the later legends that have given souls to trees and flowers and butterflies, or with those pious70 traditions that have revealed so tenderly and yet so forcibly the divine significance of Nature. The Festival of the Dead could only have originated among a people to whom the beautiful is the mainstay and joy of life, for that festival is nothing less than a call to the departed dead to return to their old earthly haunts in the summer-time, to cross green hills dotted with pine-trees, to wander down winding71 ways, by lake and seashore, to linger in old, well-loved gardens, and to pass into homes where, without being seen, they see so much. To the Japanese mind, to those who still preserve the spirit of Old Yamato, the most glowing account of a Buddhist72 Paradise is not so fair as Japan in the summer-time.
Perhaps it is as well that Japanese myth, legend, fairy tale, and folk-lore are not exclusively poetical, or we should be in danger of becoming satiated with too much sweetness. It may be that we admire the arches of a Gothic cathedral none the less for having gazed upon the hideous73 gargoyles74 on the outside of the sacred edifice75, and in the legends of Japan we find many grotesques76 in sharp contrast with the traditions associated with the gentle and loving Jizō. There is plenty of crude realism in Japanese legend. We are repelled77 by the Thunder God's favourite repast, amazed by the magical power of foxes and cats; and the story of "Hōïchi-the-Earless" and of the corpse-eating priest afford striking examples of the combination of the weird78 and the horrible. In one story we laugh over the antics of a performing kettle, and in another we are[Pg xx] almost moved to tears when we read about a little Japanese quilt that murmured: "Elder Brother probably is cold? Nay79, thou probably art cold?"
We have had numerous volumes of Japanese fairy tales, but hitherto no book has appeared giving a comprehensive study of the myths and legends of a country so rich in quaint and beautiful traditions, and it is hoped that the present volume, the result of much pleasant labour, will be a real contribution to the subject. I have made no attempt to make a complete collection of Japanese myths and legends because their number is legion; but I have endeavoured to make a judicious80 selection that shall at any rate be representative, and many of the stories contained in this volume will be new to the general reader.
Lafcadio Hearn wrote in one of his letters: "The fairy world seized my soul again, very softly and sweetly—as a child might a butterfly," and if we too would adopt a similar spirit, we shall journey to the Land of the Gods, where the great Kōbō Daishi will write upon the sky and running water, upon our very hearts, something of the glamour81 and magic of Old Japan. With Kōbō Daishi for guide we shall witness the coming of Mount Fuji, wander in the Palace of the Sea King and in the Land of Perpetual Youth, watch the combats of mighty heroes, listen to the wisdom of saints, cross the Celestial River on a bridge of birds, and when we are weary nestle in the long sleeve of the ever-smiling Jizō.
F. HADLAND DAVIS
[1] The Full Recognition of Japan, by Robert P. Porter.
[2] Chronicles of Japan, completed A.D. 720, deals, in an interesting manner, with the myths, legends, poetry and history from the earliest times down to A.D. 697.
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1
quaintness
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| n.离奇有趣，古怪的事物 | |
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quaint
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| adj.古雅的，离奇有趣的，奇怪的 | |
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melodious
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| adj.旋律美妙的，调子优美的，音乐性的 | |
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glorified
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| 美其名的，变荣耀的 | |
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celestial
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| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
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loath
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| adj.不愿意的；勉强的 | |
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advancement
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| n.前进，促进，提升 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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prone
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| adj.(to)易于…的，很可能…的；俯卧的 | |
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tact
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| n.机敏，圆滑，得体 | |
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veins
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| n.纹理；矿脉( vein的名词复数 )；静脉；叶脉；纹理 | |
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patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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loyalty
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| n.忠诚，忠心 | |
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revere
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| vt.尊崇，崇敬，敬畏 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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Buddhism
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| n.佛教（教义） | |
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invaders
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| 入侵者，侵略者，侵入物( invader的名词复数 ) | |
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subduing
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| 征服( subdue的现在分词 )； 克制； 制服； 色变暗 | |
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predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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northward
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| adv.向北；n.北方的地区 | |
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adaptability
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rein
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| n.疆绳，统治，支配；vt.以僵绳控制，统治 | |
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aboriginal
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| adj.（指动植物）土生的，原产地的，土著的 | |
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anthropologist
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| n.人类学家，人类学者 | |
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emblem
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| n.象征，标志；徽章 | |
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corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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situated
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corruptions
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| n.堕落( corruption的名词复数 )；腐化；腐败；贿赂 | |
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lengthy
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| adj.漫长的，冗长的 | |
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ascended
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mythology
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| n.神话，神话学，神话集 | |
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endue
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| v.赋予 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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protracted
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| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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mingling
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| adj.混合的 | |
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portrayed
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| v.画像( portray的过去式和过去分词 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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knack
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| n.诀窍，做事情的灵巧的，便利的方法 | |
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eminently
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| adv.突出地；显著地；不寻常地 | |
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chivalrous
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| adj.武士精神的；对女人彬彬有礼的 | |
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valiant
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| adj.勇敢的，英勇的；n.勇士，勇敢的人 | |
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redress
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| n.赔偿，救济，矫正；v.纠正，匡正，革除 | |
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innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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awakened
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| v.（使）醒( awaken的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）觉醒；弄醒；（使）意识到 | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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plunged
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| v.颠簸( plunge的过去式和过去分词 )；暴跌；骤降；突降 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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maidens
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| 处女( maiden的名词复数 )； 少女； 未婚女子； （板球运动）未得分的一轮投球 | |
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slays
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的第三人称单数 ) | |
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crouched
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| v.屈膝，蹲伏( crouch的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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pathos
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| n.哀婉，悲怆 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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poetical
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| adj.似诗人的；诗一般的；韵文的；富有诗意的 | |
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70
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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71
winding
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| n.绕，缠，绕组，线圈 | |
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72
Buddhist
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| adj./n.佛教的，佛教徒 | |
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73
hideous
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| adj.丑陋的，可憎的，可怕的，恐怖的 | |
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74
gargoyles
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| n.怪兽状滴水嘴( gargoyle的名词复数 ) | |
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75
edifice
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| n.宏伟的建筑物(如宫殿，教室) | |
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76
grotesques
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| n.衣着、打扮、五官等古怪，不协调的样子( grotesque的名词复数 ) | |
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77
repelled
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| v.击退( repel的过去式和过去分词 )；使厌恶；排斥；推开 | |
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78
weird
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| adj.古怪的，离奇的；怪诞的，神秘而可怕的 | |
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79
nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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80
judicious
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| adj.明智的，明断的，能作出明智决定的 | |
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81
glamour
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| n.魔力，魅力；vt.迷住 | |
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