Lotung.
Tea-drinking in England and Japan
In England we regard tea simply as a beverage5, a refreshing6 and mild stimulant7 over which ladies are wont8 to gossip with their neighbours. There is nothing romantic about our tea-pots and kettles and spoons; they come from the kitchen and are returned to the kitchen with prescribed regularity9. We have a few stock comments on the subject of tea, and can quote the exact price our grandmothers paid for this beverage. We have our opinions as to whether it is best taken with or without sugar, and have sometimes found it efficacious in driving away a headache.
When tea reached our own country in 1650 it was referred to as "that excellent and by all physicians approved China drink, called by the Chineans Tcha, and by other nations Tay, alias11 Tee." In 1711 the Spectator remarked: "I would therefore in a particular manner recommend these my speculations12 to all well-regulated families that set apart an hour every morning for tea, bread and butter; and would earnestly advise them for[Pg 291] their good to order this paper to be punctually served up and to be looked upon as a part of the tea-equipage." Dr. Johnson described himself as "a hardened and shameless tea-drinker, who for twenty years diluted13 his meals with only the infusion14 of the fascinating plant; who with tea amused the evening, with tea solaced15 the midnight, and with tea welcomed the morning." But there is no romance, no old tradition associated with our tea-drinking in this country. Perhaps it is as well that the ladies sitting in our fashionable drawing-rooms are unacquainted with the grim and pathetic legend that narrates16 how a Buddhist17 priest fell asleep during his meditations19. When he awoke he cut off his offending eyelids20 and flung them on the ground, where they were immediately transformed into the first tea-plant.
In Japan tea-drinking has become a ritual. It is not so much a social function as a time for peaceful meditation18. The elaborate tea ceremonies, cha-no-yu, have their tea-masters, etiquette21, and numerous observances. A cup of Japanese tea is combined with spiritual and artistic22 enlightenment. But before discussing these very interesting ceremonies we must learn something about the significance of tea in China, for it was the drinking of this beverage in the Celestial23 Kingdom, associated with the rarest porcelain24 and æsthetic and religious thought, that inspired the tea cult25 in the Land of the Gods.
Tea in China
The tea-plant, a native of Southern China, was originally regarded as a medicine. It was referred to in the classics by such names as Tou, Tseh, Chung, Kha, and Ming, and was much esteemed26 on account of its medicinal properties. It was regarded as an excellent lotion[Pg 292] for strengthening the eyes, and, moreover, had the power to banish27 fatigue28, strengthen the will, and delight the soul. It was sometimes made in the form of a paste, and was believed to be efficacious in reducing rheumatic pain. The Taoists went so far as to claim that tea was one of the ingredients of the Elixir29 of Life, while the Buddhist priests drank it whenever it was necessary for them to meditate30 during the long hours of the night.
Luwuh and the "Chaking"
In the fourth and fifth centuries we find that tea became a highly favoured beverage among the people of the Yangtse-Kiang valley. At this time, too, poets waxed eloquent31 in its praise, and described it as the "froth of the liquid jade32." But tea at that time was a very horrible concoction33 indeed, for it was boiled with rice, salt, ginger34, orange-peel, and not infrequently with onions! However, Luwuh, who lived in the eighth century, discountenanced the strange mixture we have just referred to. He was the first Chinese tea-master, and not only did he idealize tea, but he saw, with keen poetic35 insight, that the ceremony of drinking it made for harmony and order in daily life.
In his Chaking ("The Holy Scripture36 of Tea") he describes the nature of the tea-plant, and how its leaves should be gathered and selected. He was of the opinion that the best leaves should have "creases37 like the leathern boot of Tartar horsemen, curl like the dewlap of a mighty38 bullock, unfold like a mist rising out of a ravine, gleam like a lake touched by a zephyr39, and be wet and soft like fine earth newly swept by rain." Luwuh describes the various utensils40 connected with the tea ceremony, and asserts that the green beverage should be drunk from blue porcelain cups. He discourses41 on the subject of the choice of water and the[Pg 293] manner of boiling it. In poetical42 language he describes the three stages of boiling. He compares the little bubbles of the first boil with the eyes of fishes, the bubbles of the second boil with a fountain crowned with clustering crystal beads43, and the final boil is described as resembling the surge of miniature billows. The concluding chapters of the Chaking deal with the vulgar and unorthodox methods of drinking tea, and the ardent44 master gives a list of celebrated45 tea-drinkers, and enumerates46 the famous Chinese tea plantations47. Luwuh's fascinating book was regarded as a masterpiece. He was sought after by the Emperor Taisung, attracted many disciples50, and was regarded as the greatest authority on tea and tea-drinking. His fame did not die with him, for since his death Chinese tea-merchants have worshipped him as a tutelary51 god.
The Japanese Tea Ceremony
It is believed that the great Buddhist saint, Dengyō Daishi, introduced tea into Japan from China in A.D. 805. In any case tea-drinking in Nippon was associated with Buddhism52, and most particularly with the Zen sect53, which had incorporated so many of the Taoist doctrines54. The priests of this order drank tea from a single bowl before the image of Bodhi Dharma (Daruma). They did so in the spirit of reverence56, and regarded the tea-drinking as a holy sacrament. It was this Zen observance, strictly57 of a religious nature, which finally developed into the Japanese tea ceremony.
"The tea ceremonies," writes Professor B. H. Chamberlain, "have undergone three transformations58 during the six or seven hundred years of their existence. They have passed through a medico-religious stage, a luxurious59 stage, and, lastly, an æsthetic stage." In the religious stage the Buddhist priest Eisai wrote a[Pg 294] pamphlet entitled The Salutary Influence of Tea-drinking, in which he asserted that this beverage had the power to drive away evil spirits. He introduced a religious ceremonial in regard to the worship of ancestors, accompanied by the beating of drums and the burning of incense60. Eisai wrote his tract48 with the intention of converting Minamoto-no-Sanetomo from his vicious love of the wine-cup, and endeavoured to show the superiority of the tea-plant over the juice of the grape.
We find that the tea ceremonies for the time being lost their religious significance: "The Daimyōs," writes Professor Chamberlain, "who daily took part in them reclined on couches spread with tiger-skins and leopard-skins. The walls of the spacious61 apartments in which the guests assembled were hung, not only with Buddhist pictures, but with damask and brocade, with gold and silver vessels62, and swords in splendid sheaths. Precious perfumes were burnt, rare fishes and strange birds were served up with sweetmeats and wine, and the point of the entertainment consisted in guessing where the material for each cup of tea had been produced; for as many brands as possible were brought in, to serve as a puzzle or jeu de société.... Every right guess procured63 for him who made it the gift of one of the treasures that were hung round the room. But he was not allowed to carry it away himself. The rules of the tea ceremonies, as then practised, ordained64 that all the things rich and rare that were exhibited must be given by their winners to the singing and dancing-girls, troupes65 of whom were present to help the company in their carousal66."
This variety of tea ceremony, which appears to have been more of an orgy than anything else, reflected the luxurious and dissolute age in which it was practised.[Pg 295] The tea ceremony, in its more enduring and characteristic form, was destined67 to abandon all vulgar display, to embrace a certain amount of religion and philosophy, and above all to afford a means of studying art and the beauty of Nature. The tea-room became, not a place of carousal, but a place where the wayfarer68 might find peace in solemn meditation. Even the garden path leading to the tea-room had its symbolic69 meaning, for it signified the first stage of self-illumination. The following was Kobori-Enshiu's idea of the path leading to the tea-room:
"A cluster of summer trees,
A bit of the sea,
A pale evening moon."
Such a scene was intended to convey to the wayfarer a sense of spiritual light. The trees, sea, and moon awakened70 old dreams, and their presence made the guest eager to pass into the greater joys of the tea-room. No samurai was allowed to take his sword into the fragrant71 sanctuary72 of peace, and in many tea-rooms there was a low door through which the guests entered with bowed head, as a sign of humility73. In silence the guests made obeisance74 before a kakemono, or some simple and beautiful flower on the tokonoma (alcove), and then seated themselves upon the mats. When they had done so the host entered and the water was heard to boil in the kettle with a musical sound, because of some pieces of iron which it contained. Even the boiling of the kettle was associated with poetical ideas, for the song of water and metal was intended to suggest "the echoes of a cataract75 muffled76 by clouds, of a distant sea breaking among the rocks, a rainstorm sweeping77 through a bamboo forest, or of the soughing of pines on some far-away hill." There was a sense of harmony in the tea-room. The light was like the mellow78 light of evening, and the garments of the[Pg 296] company were as quiet and unobtrusive as the grey wings of a moth10. In this peaceful apartment the guests drank their tea and meditated79, and went forth80 into the world again better and stronger for having contemplated81 in silence the beautiful and the noble in religion, art, and nature. "Seeking always to be in harmony with the great rhythm of the universe, they were ever prepared to enter the unknown."
The Passing of Rikiu
Rikiu was one of the greatest of tea-masters, and for long he remained the friend of Taiko-Hideyoshi; but the age in which he lived was full of treachery. There were many who were jealous of Rikiu, many who sought his death. When a coldness sprang up between Hideyoshi and Rikiu, the enemies of the great tea-master made use of this breach82 of friendship by spreading the report that Rikiu intended to add poison to a cup of tea and present it to his distinguished83 patron. Hideyoshi soon heard of the rumour84, and without troubling to examine the matter he condemned85 Rikiu to die by his own hand.
On the last day of the famous tea-master's life he invited many of his disciples to join with him in his final tea ceremony. As they walked up the garden path it seemed that ghosts whispered in the rustling86 leaves. When the disciples entered the tea-room they saw a kakemono hanging in the tokonoma, and when they raised their sorrowful eyes they saw that the writing described the passing of all earthly things. There was poetry in the singing of the tea-kettle, but it was a sad song like the plaintive87 cry of an insect. Rikiu came into the tea-room calm and dignified88, and, according to custom, he allowed the chief guest to admire the various articles associated with the tea ceremony. When all the guests had gazed upon them, noting their beauty with a heavy heart, Rikiu presented[Pg 297] each disciple49 with a souvenir. He took his own cup in his hand, and said: "Never again shall this cup, polluted by the lips of misfortune, be used by man." Having spoken these words, he broke the cup as a sign that the tea ceremony was over, and the guests bade a sad farewell and departed. Only one remained to witness, not the drinking of another cup of tea, but the passing of Rikiu. The great master took off his outer garment, and revealed the pure white robe of Death. Still calm and dignified, he looked upon his dagger89, and then recited the following verse with unfaltering voice:
"Welcome to thee,
O sword of eternity90!
Through Buddha91
And through Daruma alike
Thou hast cleft92 thy way."
He who loved to quote the old poem, "To those who long only for flowers fain would I show the full-blown spring which abides93 in the toiling94 buds of snow-covered hills," has crowned the Japanese tea ceremony with an immortal1 flower.
The Legend of the Tea-plant[3]
Daruma was an Indian sage95, whose image, as we have already seen, was associated with the ritualistic drinking of tea by the Zen sect in Japan. He is said to have been the son of a Hindu king, and received instruction from Panyatara. When he had completed his studies he retired96 to Lo Yang, where he remained seated in meditation for nine years. During this period the sage was tempted97 after the manner of St. Anthony. He wrestled98 with these temptations by continually reciting sacred scriptures99; but the frequent repetition of the[Pg 298] word "jewel" lost its spiritual significance, and became associated with the precious stone worn in the ear of a certain lovely woman. Even the word "lotus," so sacred to all true Buddhists100, ceased to be the symbol of the Lord Buddha and suggested to Daruma the opening of a girl's fair mouth. His temptations increased, and he was transported to an Indian city, where he found himself among a vast crowd of worshippers. He saw strange deities101 with horrible symbols upon their foreheads, and Rajahs and Princes riding upon elephants, surrounded by a great company of dancing-girls. The great crowd of people surged forward, and Daruma with them, till they came to a temple with innumerable pinnacles102, a temple covered with a multitude of foul103 forms, and it seemed to Daruma that he met and kissed the woman who had changed the meaning of jewel and lotus. Then suddenly the vision departed, and Daruma awoke to find himself sitting under the Chinese sky. The sage, who had fallen asleep during his meditation, was truly penitent104 for the neglect of his devotions, and, taking a knife from his girdle, he cut off his eyelids and cast them upon the ground, saying: "O Thou Perfectly105 Awakened!" The eyelids were transformed into the tea-plant, from which was made a beverage that would repel106 slumber107 and allow good Buddhist priests to their vigils.
Daruma
Daruma is generally represented without legs, for according to one version of the legend we have just given he lost his limbs as the result of the nine-year meditation. Netsuke[4]-carvers depict108 him in a full, bag-like[Pg 299] like garment, with a scowling109 face and lidless eyes. He is sometimes presented in Japanese art as being surrounded with cobwebs, and there is a very subtle variation of the saint portrayed110 as a female Daruma, which is nothing less than a playful jest against Japanese women, who could not be expected to remain silent for nine years! An owl55 is frequently associated with Daruma, and in his journey to Japan he is pictured as standing111 on waves, supported by a millet112 stalk. Three years after Daruma's death he was seen walking across the western mountains of China, and it was observed that he carried one shoe in his right hand. When Daruma's tomb was opened by the order of the Emperor it was found only to contain a shoe, which the saint had forgotten to take away with him.[5]
[1] We have derived113 most of the material for this chapter from The Book of Tea, by Okakura-Kakuzo, and we warmly commend this very charming volume to those who are interested in the subject.
[2] The Chinese Paradise.
[3] A full account of this beautiful legend will be found in Lafcadio Hearn's Some Chinese Ghosts.
[4] "Originally a kind of toggle for the medicine-box or tobacco-pouch, carved out of wood or ivory."—Things Japanese, by B. H. Chamberlain.
[5] Reference to Yuki-Daruma, or Snow-Daruma, and toy-Daruma, called Okiagari-koboshi ("The Getting-up Little Priest"), will be found in Lafcadio Hearn's A Japanese Miscellany.
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1
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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immortals
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| 不朽的人物( immortal的名词复数 )； 永生不朽者 | |
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waft
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| v.飘浮，飘荡；n.一股；一阵微风；飘荡 | |
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thither
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| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
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beverage
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| n.(水，酒等之外的)饮料 | |
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refreshing
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| adj.使精神振作的，使人清爽的，使人喜欢的 | |
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stimulant
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| n.刺激物，兴奋剂 | |
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wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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regularity
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| n.规律性，规则性；匀称，整齐 | |
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moth
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| n.蛾，蛀虫 | |
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alias
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| n.化名；别名；adv.又名 | |
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speculations
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| n.投机买卖( speculation的名词复数 )；思考；投机活动；推断 | |
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diluted
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| 无力的，冲淡的 | |
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infusion
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| n.灌输 | |
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solaced
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| v.安慰，慰藉( solace的过去分词 ) | |
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narrates
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Buddhist
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| adj./n.佛教的，佛教徒 | |
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meditation
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| n.熟虑，（尤指宗教的）默想，沉思，（pl.）冥想录 | |
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meditations
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| 默想( meditation的名词复数 )； 默念； 沉思； 冥想 | |
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eyelids
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| n.眼睑( eyelid的名词复数 )；眼睛也不眨一下；不露声色；面不改色 | |
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etiquette
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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celestial
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porcelain
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cult
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| n.异教，邪教；时尚，狂热的崇拜 | |
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esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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banish
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| vt.放逐，驱逐；消除，排除 | |
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fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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elixir
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| n.长生不老药，万能药 | |
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meditate
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| v.想，考虑，（尤指宗教上的）沉思，冥想 | |
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eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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jade
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| n.玉石；碧玉；翡翠 | |
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concoction
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| n.调配(物)；谎言 | |
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ginger
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| n.姜，精力，淡赤黄色；adj.淡赤黄色的；vt.使活泼，使有生气 | |
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poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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creases
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| （使…）起折痕，弄皱( crease的第三人称单数 )； （皮肤）皱起，使起皱纹 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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zephyr
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| n.和风，微风 | |
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utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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discourses
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| 论文( discourse的名词复数 )； 演说； 讲道； 话语 | |
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poetical
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| adj.似诗人的；诗一般的；韵文的；富有诗意的 | |
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beads
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| n.（空心）小珠子( bead的名词复数 )；水珠；珠子项链 | |
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ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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celebrated
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enumerates
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plantations
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| n.种植园，大农场( plantation的名词复数 ) | |
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tract
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| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
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disciple
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| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
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disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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tutelary
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| adj.保护的；守护的 | |
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Buddhism
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| n.佛教（教义） | |
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sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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owl
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| n.猫头鹰，枭 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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transformations
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| n.变化( transformation的名词复数 )；转换；转换；变换 | |
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luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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incense
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| v.激怒；n.香，焚香时的烟，香气 | |
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spacious
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| adj.广阔的，宽敞的 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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ordained
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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troupes
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| n. （演出的）一团, 一班 vi. 巡回演出 | |
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carousal
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| n.喧闹的酒会 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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68
wayfarer
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| n.旅人 | |
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69
symbolic
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| adj.象征性的，符号的，象征主义的 | |
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70
awakened
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| v.（使）醒( awaken的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）觉醒；弄醒；（使）意识到 | |
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71
fragrant
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| adj.芬香的，馥郁的，愉快的 | |
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72
sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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73
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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74
obeisance
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| n.鞠躬，敬礼 | |
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75
cataract
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| n.大瀑布，奔流，洪水，白内障 | |
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76
muffled
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| adj.（声音）被隔的；听不太清的；（衣服）裹严的；蒙住的v.压抑，捂住( muffle的过去式和过去分词 )；用厚厚的衣帽包着（自己） | |
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77
sweeping
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| adj.范围广大的，一扫无遗的 | |
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mellow
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| adj.柔和的；熟透的；v.变柔和；(使)成熟 | |
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79
meditated
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| 深思，沉思，冥想( meditate的过去式和过去分词 )； 内心策划，考虑 | |
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80
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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81
contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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82
breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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83
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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84
rumour
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| n.谣言，谣传，传闻 | |
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85
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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86
rustling
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| n. 瑟瑟声，沙沙声 adj. 发沙沙声的 | |
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87
plaintive
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| adj.可怜的，伤心的 | |
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88
dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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89
dagger
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| n.匕首，短剑，剑号 | |
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90
eternity
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| n.不朽，来世；永恒，无穷 | |
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91
Buddha
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| n.佛；佛像；佛陀 | |
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92
cleft
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| n.裂缝；adj.裂开的 | |
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93
abides
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| 容忍( abide的第三人称单数 )； 等候； 逗留； 停留 | |
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94
toiling
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| 长时间或辛苦地工作( toil的现在分词 )； 艰难缓慢地移动，跋涉 | |
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95
sage
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| n.圣人，哲人；adj.贤明的，明智的 | |
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96
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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97
tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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98
wrestled
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| v.（与某人）搏斗( wrestle的过去式和过去分词 )；扭成一团；扭打；（与…）摔跤 | |
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99
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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100
Buddhists
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| n.佛教徒( Buddhist的名词复数 ) | |
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101
deities
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| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
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102
pinnacles
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| 顶峰( pinnacle的名词复数 )； 顶点； 尖顶； 小尖塔 | |
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103
foul
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| adj.污秽的；邪恶的；v.弄脏；妨害；犯规；n.犯规 | |
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104
penitent
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| adj.后悔的；n.后悔者；忏悔者 | |
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105
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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106
repel
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| v.击退，抵制，拒绝，排斥 | |
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107
slumber
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| n.睡眠，沉睡状态 | |
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108
depict
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| vt.描画，描绘；描写，描述 | |
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109
scowling
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| 怒视，生气地皱眉( scowl的现在分词 ) | |
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110
portrayed
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| v.画像( portray的过去式和过去分词 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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111
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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112
millet
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| n.小米，谷子 | |
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113
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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