Cotton—Its Cultivation1 in the United States—Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha—Manner in which these resins3 are collected—Indigo4—The British Logwood cutters in Honduras—Brazil Wood—Arnatto.
Under the Plantagenets and the Tudors, wool formed the chief export of England. The pastoral races that inhabited the British Isles5, unskilled in weaving, suffered the more industrious6 Flemings to convert their fleeces into tissues; and the dominions7 of the Duke of Burgundy, enriched by manufactures and by the stimulus8 they gave to agriculture, became the most prosperous part of Europe. At length the islanders began to discover the sources of the wealth which rendered Ghent and Bruges, Ypres and Louvain, the marvel9 and envy of the mediæval world; and gradually learning to keep their wool at home, invited the Flemings to the shores of England.
The bigoted10 oppression of Spain came in aid of this more enlightened policy: our wool ceased to be sent abroad, and English cloth eventually became the chief of our exports. But, like all human affairs, trade is subject to eternal fluctuation11, new wants are constantly created, new markets opened, new articles introduced, and thus, almost within the memory of living man, the wool-manufactory has ceased to be the great staple12 of our189 industry; and, thanks to the inventive genius of our Arkwrights and Cromptons, a vegetable fibre furnished by a plant totally unknown to our forefathers13, now ranks as the first of all the world-wide importations of England.
There are many different species of the cotton-plant, herbaceous, shrubby14, and arboreal15. Their original birthplace is the tropical zone, where they are found growing wild in all parts of the world; but the herbaceous species still thrive under a mean temperature of from 60° to 64° F., and are capable of being cultivated with advantage as far as 40° or even 46° N. lat. The five-lobed leaves have a dark green colour, the flowers are yellow with a purple centre, and produce a pod about the size of a walnut16, which, when ripe, bursts and exhibits to view the fleecy cotton in which the seeds are securely embedded17.
It is almost superfluous18 to mention that the United States is the first cotton-producing country in the world. The area suitable for cotton south of the thirty-sixth degree of latitude19, comprises more than 39,000,000 acres, of which less than one-sixth part is now devoted20 to the plant. The yield depends in part upon the length of the season. Seven months are required for an average crop, and the average periods in which the last killing21 frost of spring and the first killing frost of autumn occur are March 23, and October 26. Cotton is cultivated in large fields, and when the soil is superior, the plant rises to a height of six or eight feet, although in the richest cane-brake soil, exhausted22 by successive crops, it dwindles23 down to a height of three or four feet only. The aspect of a cotton field is most pleasing in the autumn, when the dark-coloured foliage24 and bright yellow flowers, intermingling with the snow-white down of the pods when burst, produce a charming contrast. At that time all hands are at work, for it is important to pluck as much as possible during the first hours of morning, since the heat of the sun injures the colour of the cotton, and the over-ripe capsules shed their contents upon the ground, or allow the wind to carry them away.
The collected produce is immediately carried to the steam-mill to be cleansed25 of the seeds, and then closely packed in bales, which in the seaports26 are further reduced by hydraulic27 presses to half of their previous volume, thus causing a great saving in the freight. Large clippers frequently carry eight or ten190 thousand of these bales to Liverpool, whence, perhaps on the day of their arrival, they are conveyed by rail to the next manufacturing town, which returns them in a few days to the port, ready to clothe the Australian gold-digger or the labourer on the banks of the Ganges.
India, which still in the last century provided Europe with the finest cambrics and muslins, now yearly receives from England cotton goods to a large amount. Thus the stream of trade may be said to have rolled backwards28 to its source, for though the wants of the Hindoo are easily satisfied, and cotton grows at his very door, yet his hand-loom is unable to compete with the machinery29 and the capital of England. Even in the exportation of the raw material he labours under great disadvantage when compared with America, though railroads and a better system of culture have done much to improve the quality and facilitate the transport of Indian cotton.
When we consider the luxuriance of vegetation in the tropical zone, it is not to be wondered at that so many plants of those climes abound30 with juices of a variety and richness unknown to those of the temperate31 latitudes32. The resins and gums which our indigenous33 trees produce, either in smaller quantities or fit only for common uses, are there endowed with higher virtues34, and ennobled, as it were, by the rays of a more powerful sun. Sometimes they exude35 spontaneously through the rind and harden in the atmosphere; more frequently a slight incision36 is required to make the sap gush37 forth38 in which they are dissolved, but in every case they require but trifling39 labour for their collection. Many of them have medicinal qualities, others are esteemed40 for their aromatic41 odour, but none ranks higher in a commercial and technical point of view than caoutchouc or India-rubber, which was first brought from South America to Europe as a great curiosity at the beginning of the last century, and is now absolutely indispensable for a thousand different uses. Nothing was known even of its origin until the year 1736, when the French naturalist42 La Condamine, while exploring the banks of the Amazon, discovered that it was chiefly produced by the Siphonia elastica, a large tree growing wild in the primitive44 forests along the borders of the rivers in Guiana and North Brazil.
The resin2 is collected by the Indians in a very simple191 manner. With a small hatchet45 they make deep and long incisions46 in the rind, from which a milky47 sap abundantly exudes48. A small wooden peg49 is then fixed50 into each aperture51 to prevent its closing, and a cup of moist clay fastened underneath52, which in about four or five hours is filled with as many table-spoonfuls of the juice. The produce of a number of incisions having been gathered in a large earthen vessel53, is then spread in thin coatings upon moulds made of clay, and dried, layer after layer, over a fire, until the whole has acquired a certain thickness. When perfectly54 dry, the clay form within is broken into small fragments, and the pieces are extracted through an aperture, which is always left for the purpose.
Besides the Siphonia elastica, many other American trees, belonging to the families of the Euphorbiaceæ and Urticeæ, afford excellent kinds of caoutchouc; and since it is become so valuable an article of commerce, the East Indies, and Java likewise, yield considerable quantities, chiefly from the Urceola elastica and the Ficus elastica.
The Icosandra Gutta, which furnishes the gutta percha of commerce, is a native of the Eastern Archipelago and the adjacent lands. A few years since, this substance, now so celebrated55 and of such wide extended use, was totally unknown in Europe, for though from time immemorial the Malays employed it for making the handles of their hatchets56 and creeses, it was only in the year 1843 that Mr. Montgomery, an English surgeon, having casually57 become acquainted with its valuable properties, sent an account of it, with samples, to the Royal Society, for which he was most justly rewarded with its gold medal. The fame of the new article spread rapidly throughout the world; science and speculation58 seized upon it with equal eagerness; a thousand newspapers promulgated59 its praises; it was immediately analysed, studied, and tried in every possible way, so that it is now as well known and as extensively used as if it had been in our possession for centuries.
The Icosandra Gutta is a large high tree, with a dense60 crown of rather small dark green leaves, and a round smooth trunk. The white blossoms change into a sweet fruit, containing an oily substance fit for culinary use. The wood is soft, spongy, and contains longitudinal cavities filled with brown stripes of gutta percha. The original method of the Malays for collecting192 the resin consisted in felling the tree, which was then placed in a slanting61 position, so as to enable the exuding62 fluid to be collected in banana leaves. This barbarous proceeding63, which from the enormous demand which suddenly arose for the gutta would soon have brought the rapidly rising trade to a suicidal end, fortunately became known before it was too late, and the resin is now gathered in the same manner as caoutchouc, by making incisions in the bark with a chopping knife, collecting the thin, white, milky fluid which exudes in large vessels64, and allowing it to evaporate in the sun or over a fire. The solid residuum, which is the gutta percha of commerce, is finally softened65 in hot water, and pressed into the form of slabs66.
Grutta percha has many properties in common with caoutchouc, being completely insoluble in water, tenacious68, but not elastic43, and an extremely bad conductor of caloric and electricity. The name of vegetable leather which has been applied69 to it, gives a good idea both of its appearance and tenacity70.
Its uses are manifold. It serves for water-pipes, for vessels fit for the reception of alkaline or acid liquids which would corrode71 metal or wood, for surgical72 implements73, for boxes, baskets, combs, and a variety of other articles. The wonder of the age, submarine telegraphy, could hardly have been realised without it, as it is only by being cased in so isolating74 a substance, and one so impermeable75 by water, that the metallic76 wire is able to transmit the galvanic stream through the depths of ocean from land to land.
Of all the dyeing substances which the tropical zone produces in such endless variety, none is more important in a commercial point of view than indigo. Various species of plants producing this beautiful cerulean colour are found growing spontaneously in the warmer countries of both hemispheres, but the Indigofera tinctoria is most generally cultivated. The knotty77 shrubby plant rises about two feet from the ground; the leaves are winged like those of the acacia, smooth and soft to the touch, furrowed78 above, and of a darker colour on the upper than the under side. The small reddish flowers which grow in ears from the axillæ of the leaves have no smell, and are succeeded by long crooked79 brown pods, which contain small yellow seeds. The plant requires a smooth rich soil, well tilled, and neither too dry nor too moist. A child of the sun, it cannot be193 advantageously cultivated anywhere except within the tropics, a higher mean temperature than 60° being absolutely necessary for its vegetation. The seed is sown in furrows80 a foot apart from each other, and two or three inches in depth. Sufficient moisture causes it to shoot above the surface in three or four days, and it is usually fit for gathering81 at the end of two months. When it begins to flower it is cut with a sickle82 a few inches above the roots, and furnishes, after six or eight weeks, a second crop. The cultivation of indigo would thus seem to be extremely profitable, but the sun, which so rapidly improves and invigorates the plant, calls forth at the same time a multitude of insects and caterpillars83, that prey84 upon the valuable leaves, and frequently disappoint the planter’s expectations.
CUTTING THE INDIGO PLANT.
All the intermediate shades of violet and purple may be obtained from the mixture of red and blue, varying according to the different proportions wherein these colours are applied. There are, however, some few vegetable substances which yield a violet or purple dye, without being combined with another colour, and of these logwood is the most important. The stately tree which furnishes this valuable article of commerce is a native of the western world, having been first discovered in194 the swampy85 forests of Yucatan, and in the low alluvial86 grounds that girdle the Bays of Campeachy and Honduras.
About the year 1661, logwood became in great request; and as the indolent Spaniards to whom the country at that time belonged failed to supply the market, several English adventurers, without first asking permission, settled or squatted87 on the uninhabited coast of Yucatan, and made the woods near Laguna de Terminos ring with the sound of their industrious axe88. Many years passed without the Spaniards taking any notice of the intruders; but as these, growing bolder by sufferance, began to penetrate89 farther into the country, to build houses and form plantations90, as if they had been masters of the soil, their jealousy91 was at length aroused, and in 1680 the English settlers were forcibly ejected. This triumph on the part of their adversaries92 was, however, but transitory; and a few months after our sturdy countrymen were again cutting their logwood as busily as ever, in spite of the enmity of man and the innumerable hardships of their laborious93 occupation.
Their mode of life is thus quaintly94 described by Dampier in his Voyage to the Bay of Campeachy:—‘The logwood-cutters inhabit the creeks95 of the lagunes in small companies, building their huts by the creeks’ sides for the benefit of the sea-breeze, as near the logwood groves96 as they can, and often removing to be near their business. Though they build their huts but slightly, yet they take care to thatch97 them very well with palmetto leaves, to prevent the rains, which are there very violent, from soaking in. For their bedding, they raise a wooden frame, three feet and a half above ground on one side of the house, and stick up four stakes at each corner, to fasten their curtains, out of which there is no sleeping for mosquitoes. Another frame they raise, covered with earth, for a hearth98, to dress their victuals99; and a third to sit at, when they eat it. During the wet season, the land where the logwood grows is so overflowed100 that they step from their beds into the water, perhaps two feet deep, and continue standing101 in the wet all day till they go to bed again; but, nevertheless, account it the best season for doing a good day’s labour in. Some fell the trees, others saw and cut them into convenient logs, and one chips off the bark, and he is commonly the principal man; and when a tree is so thick that after it is logged it195 remains102 still too great a burden for one man, it is blown up with gunpowder103. The logwood-cutters are generally sturdy strong fellows, and will carry burthens of three or four hundredweight. In some places they go a-hunting wild cattle every Saturday to provide themselves with beef for the week following. When they have killed a beef they cut it into quarters, and taking out the bones, each man makes a hole in the middle of his quarter, just big enough for his head to go through, then puts it on like a frock and trudgeth home; and, if he chanceth to tire, he cuts off some of it and throws it away.’
The entire freedom from all restraint which accompanied this wild and adventurous104 life had such charms for Dampier’s bold and roving spirit, that he sojourned for about a year among the rude wood-cutters of Campeachy, and left them with the intention of again returning for a longer stay.
Most of the red dye-woods are furnished by the Cæsalpinias, a genus of plants belonging to the widespread family of the Leguminosæ, and indigenous in both hemispheres. The C. crista, which furnishes the best quality, commonly known under the name of Brazil wood, grows profusely105 in the forests of that vast empire, preferring dry places and a rocky ground. Its trunk is large, crooked, and full of knots; at a short distance from the ground innumerable branches spring forth and extend in every direction in a straggling manner. The branches are armed with short strong upright thorns, the leaves are small, and never appear in luxuriant foliage. The flowers are of a beautiful red colour, and emit a fragrant106 smell. Both the thick bark and the white pithy107 part of the trunk are useless, the hard close-grained heart being the only portion impregnated with colouring matter. The wood is sometimes used in turning, and is susceptible108 of a good polish, but its chief use is as a red dye. By the addition of acids it produces a permanent orange or yellow colour, while the crimson109 tints111 which it imparts are very fleeting112.
The first Europeans that settled on the banks of the Amazons found that several of the Indian tribes that roamed about in their vicinity painted their bodies with a showy orange-red colour. Their attention was by this means attracted to the Arnatto (Bixa orellana), which attains113 about the size of our196 hazel-tree. The heart-shaped leaves are about four inches long, of a lighter114 green on the upper surface, and divided by fibres of a reddish-brown colour; the rosy115 flowers are succeeded by bristled116 pods somewhat resembling those of a chestnut117, which, bursting open when ripe, display a splendid crimson farina or pulp118, in which are contained thirty or forty seeds, in shape similar to raisin119 stones. As soon as they have arrived at maturity120 the pods are gathered, divested121 of their husks, bruised122, immersed in water, and after a few weeks beaten with sticks to promote the separation of the pulp from the seeds. The turbid123 liquor is then strained, boiled to a consistent paste, and finally formed into cakes, which are left to dry in the sun. In England arnatto is generally used by the dyer to give a deeper shade to the simple yellow. Being perfectly soluble67 in spirits of wine, it is much used in this state for lacquering and for giving an orange tint110 to the yellow varnishes124. It is likewise employed in large quantities as a colouring ingredient for cheese, to which it gives the required tinge125 without imparting any unpleasant flavour or unwholesome quality.
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1
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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resin
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| n.树脂，松香，树脂制品；vt.涂树脂 | |
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resins
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| n.树脂，松香( resin的名词复数 )；合成树脂v.树脂，松香( resin的第三人称单数 )；合成树脂 | |
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indigo
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| n.靛青，靛蓝 | |
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isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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bigoted
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| adj.固执己见的，心胸狭窄的 | |
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fluctuation
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| n.(物价的)波动，涨落；周期性变动；脉动 | |
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staple
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| n.主要产物，常用品，主要要素，原料，订书钉，钩环；adj.主要的，重要的；vt.分类 | |
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forefathers
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| n.祖先，先人；祖先，祖宗( forefather的名词复数 )；列祖列宗；前人 | |
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shrubby
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| adj.灌木的，灌木一般的，灌木繁茂著的 | |
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arboreal
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| adj.树栖的；树的 | |
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walnut
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| n.胡桃，胡桃木，胡桃色，茶色 | |
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embedded
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| a.扎牢的 | |
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superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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killing
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| n.巨额利润；突然赚大钱，发大财 | |
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exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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dwindles
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| v.逐渐变少或变小( dwindle的第三人称单数 ) | |
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foliage
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| n.叶子，树叶，簇叶 | |
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cleansed
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| 弄干净，清洗( cleanse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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seaports
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| n.海港( seaport的名词复数 ) | |
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hydraulic
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| adj.水力的；水压的，液压的；水力学的 | |
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backwards
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| adv.往回地，向原处，倒，相反，前后倒置地 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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temperate
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| adj.温和的，温带的，自我克制的，不过分的 | |
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latitudes
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| 纬度 | |
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indigenous
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| adj.土产的，土生土长的，本地的 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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exude
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| v.(使)流出，(使)渗出 | |
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incision
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| n．切口，切开 | |
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gush
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| v.喷，涌；滔滔不绝(说话)；n.喷，涌流；迸发 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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aromatic
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| adj.芳香的，有香味的 | |
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naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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elastic
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| n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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hatchet
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| n.短柄小斧；v.扼杀 | |
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incisions
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| n.切开，切口( incision的名词复数 ) | |
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milky
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| adj.牛奶的，多奶的；乳白色的 | |
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exudes
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| v.缓慢流出，渗出，分泌出( exude的第三人称单数 )；流露出对（某物）的神态或感情 | |
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peg
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| n.木栓，木钉；vt.用木钉钉，用短桩固定 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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aperture
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| n.孔，隙，窄的缺口 | |
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underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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hatchets
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| n.短柄小斧( hatchet的名词复数 )；恶毒攻击；诽谤；休战 | |
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casually
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| adv.漠不关心地，无动于衷地，不负责任地 | |
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speculation
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| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
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promulgated
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| v.宣扬（某事物）( promulgate的过去式和过去分词 )；传播；公布；颁布（法令、新法律等） | |
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dense
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| a.密集的，稠密的，浓密的；密度大的 | |
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slanting
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| 倾斜的，歪斜的 | |
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exuding
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| v.缓慢流出，渗出，分泌出( exude的现在分词 )；流露出对（某物）的神态或感情 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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softened
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| （使）变软( soften的过去式和过去分词 )； 缓解打击； 缓和； 安慰 | |
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slabs
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| n.厚板，平板，厚片( slab的名词复数 )；厚胶片 | |
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soluble
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| adj.可溶的；可以解决的 | |
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tenacious
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| adj.顽强的，固执的，记忆力强的，粘的 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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tenacity
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| n.坚韧 | |
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corrode
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| v.使腐蚀，侵蚀，破害；v.腐蚀，被侵蚀 | |
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surgical
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| adj.外科的，外科医生的，手术上的 | |
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implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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isolating
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| adj.孤立的，绝缘的v.使隔离( isolate的现在分词 )；将…剔出（以便看清和单独处理）；使（某物质、细胞等）分离；使离析 | |
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impermeable
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| adj.不能透过的，不渗透的 | |
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metallic
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| adj.金属的；金属制的；含金属的；产金属的；像金属的 | |
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knotty
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| adj.有结的，多节的，多瘤的，棘手的 | |
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furrowed
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| v.犁田，开沟( furrow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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crooked
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| adj.弯曲的；不诚实的，狡猾的，不正当的 | |
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furrows
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| n.犁沟( furrow的名词复数 )；（脸上的）皱纹v.犁田，开沟( furrow的第三人称单数 ) | |
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gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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sickle
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| n.镰刀 | |
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caterpillars
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| n.毛虫( caterpillar的名词复数 )；履带 | |
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prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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swampy
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| adj.沼泽的，湿地的 | |
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alluvial
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| adj.冲积的；淤积的 | |
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squatted
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| v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的过去式和过去分词 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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axe
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| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
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penetrate
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| v.透(渗)入；刺入，刺穿；洞察，了解 | |
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plantations
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| n.种植园，大农场( plantation的名词复数 ) | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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adversaries
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| n.对手，敌手( adversary的名词复数 ) | |
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laborious
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| adj.吃力的，努力的，不流畅 | |
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quaintly
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| adv.古怪离奇地 | |
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creeks
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| n.小湾( creek的名词复数 )；小港；小河；小溪 | |
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groves
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| 树丛，小树林( grove的名词复数 ) | |
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thatch
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| vt.用茅草覆盖…的顶部；n.茅草(屋) | |
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hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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victuals
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| n.食物；食品 | |
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overflowed
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| 溢出的 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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gunpowder
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| n.火药 | |
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104
adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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profusely
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| ad.abundantly | |
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fragrant
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| adj.芬香的，馥郁的，愉快的 | |
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pithy
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| adj.(讲话或文章)简练的 | |
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susceptible
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| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
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crimson
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| n./adj.深(绯)红色(的)；vi.脸变绯红色 | |
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tint
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| n.淡色，浅色；染发剂；vt.着以淡淡的颜色 | |
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111
tints
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| 色彩( tint的名词复数 )； 带白的颜色； （淡色）染发剂； 痕迹 | |
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fleeting
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| adj.短暂的，飞逝的 | |
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attains
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的第三人称单数 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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114
lighter
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| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
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rosy
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| adj.美好的，乐观的，玫瑰色的 | |
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bristled
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| adj. 直立的，多刺毛的 动词bristle的过去式和过去分词 | |
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chestnut
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| n.栗树，栗子 | |
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pulp
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| n.果肉，纸浆；v.化成纸浆，除去...果肉，制成纸浆 | |
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raisin
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| n.葡萄干 | |
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120
maturity
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| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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divested
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| v.剥夺( divest的过去式和过去分词 )；脱去（衣服）；2。从…取去…；1。（给某人）脱衣服 | |
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122
bruised
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| [医]青肿的，瘀紫的 | |
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turbid
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| adj.混浊的，泥水的，浓的 | |
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124
varnishes
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| 清漆的面（尤指木器或金属制品上的）( varnish的名词复数 )； 光泽面； 罩光漆 | |
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tinge
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| vt.(较淡)着色于，染色；使带有…气息；n.淡淡色彩，些微的气息 | |
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