With the exception of the Albanians, Islam has, in all the centuries of the reign11 of the Ottoman Power over these lands, made very slight gains from the Christian races. The number of Greek, Armenian, Bulgarian, Roumanian, Servian, Bosnian, or Montenegrin Mohammedans is insignificant12. Of these seven races, for hundreds of years under Moslem sway, the number to-day free from Ottoman control is nearly equal to the entire population, Moslem and Christian, now directly under Turkish domination.
—From “The Mohammedan World of To-day.”
[Pg 73]
THE KOORDS
Besides the Turks and Armenians, no race in Turkey has commanded more attention during the past two decades than the Koords. They have attracted the notice of the world by their large part in the Armenian massacres13 in 1895-96 as well as by their relations to the sultan himself through the organization and arming of the Hamidich cavalry14 within the last quarter of a century. They were almost unknown and unheard-of except locally until they came into prominence15 at the time of the siege of Erzerum by the Russians in 1876, when the Koords were used by the Turks in defense16. They rendered little real service, however.
Whatever else may be said, this race has now to be reckoned with in all plans for propagating Christianity in any form in Eastern Turkey and western Persia, as well as in all questions of order in that region. Sometimes they are in open conflict with the Turks, and troops are mobilized and sent against them in their mountain fastnesses. Again they are provided with arms by the government and sent out to subdue17 and suppress revolutionary bands of Armenians who are more ambitious than discreet18 in their endeavors to obtain liberty.
Little is known of the origin and history of this wild and most interesting people. They probably are the direct descendants of the Karduchi, who occupied the same plateaus and commanded the same mountain passes that the Koords now hold. It is probable that they are [Pg 74] not a race by themselves, but a collection of tribes with little among them all that is common except their hardihood, roughness, and tendency to plunder19. One chief, whom the writer knew, declared that his ancestors came to the upper waters of the Tigris from Mesopotamia some eight centuries ago, and, after conquering the region, ruled it as feudal20 lords. That form of government is in existence among them even at the present time. Undoubtedly21 the word Koord, Kurd, Gutu, Gardu, or Karu, has been promiscuously22 applied23 to any mountain race, clan24, or tribe occupying the upper waters of the great rivers in that part of the empire, if they were not already claimed by another race.
There are some marked distinctions between the peoples called Koords. Some are nomadic25 and pastoral, taking their flocks into the north of Armenia as the summer advances, and returning to the warmer regions of the south as it recedes26. These live almost entirely27 in black tents, and, while they steal, are not generally robbers. Others settle in villages and the men devote their time usually to robbing traders and caravans28 passing through their country, and levying29 blackmail30 upon the Armenians who dwell upon their borders. It is this class who cause both the Turkish government and the Armenians the most trouble. A chief, whom the writer knew personally, and at whose castle he has often passed the night, boasted that he owned nearly four hundred villages with the adjacent land, and could throw, within two days’ notice, two thousand armed horsemen into a fight anywhere within the bounds of his territory. He said that he had over three hundred armed men out upon the road most of the time. His castle had dungeons31, and was, to all intents and purposes, a fort. [Pg 75]
These various Koordish leaders not only have little in common, but they are frequently in open conflict one with another. Could these people unite under a bold leader and form an alliance with the Arabs of the south, nothing in Turkey could stand against them. Many renowned32 leaders from among the Koords have appeared from time to time. Saladin, a noted33 ameer at the time of the crusades, was a Koord.
They occupy the mountainous regions throughout Eastern Turkey, reaching far down the Tigris to Mosul and into Mesopotamia, extending into Persia upon the east and coming west as far even as Anatolia. The mass of the Koords dwell within this area, but not a few are found outside. An estimate given of their numbers places it as high as 3,000,000.
Their languages are unclassified. There are two of them, neither of which ever was put into writing except within the last generation, so that the spoken tongues of those professing34 to speak the same language greatly differ in different parts of the country. Their speech is rough, like the life they live, and resembles in no small degree the barren cliffs amid which they dwell.
Some years ago Sultan Hamid II conceived the idea of subduing35 the Koords in the eastern part of his dominions36 by calling the chiefs to Constantinople and making them each commander of a body of their own people, giving this troop his own name as a special honor. The chiefs were to provide the men and the horses and the sultan furnished the equipment. The proposition was most acceptable to the Koordish nobles, for it provided them with modern equipments of warfare37 and at the same time stamped their acts, even of depredation38, with official authority. Under the new dispensation, whoever offered resistance to a Koord armed [Pg 76] with a government rifle, by that very act put himself into open rebellion against the government. These conditions prevail at the present time in the Erzerum, Bitlis, Diarbekr and Van vilayets along the Russian frontier. Much of the trouble of the last fifteen years in these regions is due to this fact. Were it not that the Koords are urged by the government to take aggressive measures against the resident Christian population, conditions there would be better than they are at the present time.
It is often stated that all Koords are Mohammedans. The Turks take this ground, as they do regarding the Albanians of Macedonia. The fact is that few of the Koords are good Moslems. They do not hesitate to put out of the way a Turkish tax-collector who makes himself obnoxious39. The fact that he is a brother Moslem interposes no obstacle. Many of them observe few of the rites40 and customs of Islam, and one tribe, at least, living along the upper waters of the Euphrates openly declares that it is not Mohammedan. The writer, in conversation with a leading man of that tribe, said, “You are a Mohammedan.” With great indignation he spat41 into the air, and, beating upon his breast, he said, “I am a Koord; Moslems are dogs.” They have certain religious rites which greatly resemble some of the Christian customs, as, for instance, they have a service in which bread dipped in wine is put into the mouths of the kneeling participants by their religious leader. These people often tell the Armenian Christians that their sympathy is with them rather than with the Turks.
Owing to the claim of the Turks that all Koords are Mohammedans, missionaries42 have not been able to inaugurate special work among them. Throughout the country called Armenia and where the Armenians are the [Pg 77] most numerous, there also the Koords are found in the largest numbers. Frequently they reside in the same city, side by side, but more often the Armenians dwell in the plains, where they are the cultivators of the soil, while the Koords live higher up the mountains. A study of the regeneration of the Turkish empire cannot be complete without giving large consideration to this ancient, wild and violent people.
THE TURKS
In Turkey the word “Turk” is used only to designate a Mohammedan. A Greek who had accepted Islam would at once be called a “Turk.” It would be said of him that “he had Turkofied himself.” In its ordinary use, therefore, in Turkey it signifies a religious belief and that alone. The same may be said of the other names for nationality, such as Armenian, Greek, Jacobite, Yezidi, Koord, etc. Instead of using the word “Mohammedan” at this point we will consider this part of our subject under the title “The Turks,” thus keeping the national and religious parallel intact.
The Turks of Turkey comprise every race that has ever lived within its territory and has accepted Islam. As the people of the different races embrace Islam, they come at once into the Mohammedan body and are in a large measure unified43 with it by the common customs imposed upon them through the government and by their religion. These assimilated races marry and intermarry so that to-day, outside of Arabia, where the race has been kept more free from mixture, it is difficult to find among the Turks a clear racial type.
The original Turkish people were invaders44, coming into the country from [Pg 78] the north and east for plunder and conquest. As soon as these conquering hordes45 accepted Islam, every victory over a foe46 meant new women for the harem and added men who chose Islam to tribute or death. When the country had been overrun and Turkish rule was established, there was exhibited the spectacle of a Mohammedan body of officials from every race of the East, scattered47 over all parts of the empire, except possibly some sections of Koordistan and Arabia, administering a government over the other races dwelling48 among them. The Turks alone could hold office, serve in the army, collect the taxes, and control affairs. In Arabia the rulers or Turks (not so called there, however) comprised the main part of the population and so had things their own way. In all other sections of the country, other races, and not infrequently races of strength and energy who had occupied that same territory for generations before Mohammedanism arose, looked upon the Turk as an intruder and were not slow to make him aware of the fact. These were, for the most part, disorganized, and, by Turkish law, disarmed49, so that little could be done to change local conditions.
The Druses of Syria, the Koords in Eastern Turkey, and the Albanians of Macedonia were reckoned as Mohammedans by their rulers. As these people had few religious convictions of any kind, and as the Mohammedan yoke50 placed upon them did not seem heavy, they fell in with the idea in so far as it seemed to conserve51 their interests to do so. Even at the present time, it is not clear how sincerely these races are Mohammedan. It is thought by many who have been among them that their Mohammedanism is largely in name. During recent years, undoubtedly influences have [Pg 79] been brought upon the Koords which bound them more closely to the sultan, although this is not true of all classes of Koords.
Years of Turkish rule, by which the non-Moslem subject is looked down upon as a “Raya” who has no rights that a Mohammedan is bound or expected to respect, has made the Turk selfish and cruel, while it has hardened the Rayas, and made them hate the government. It has come to be generally understood that the government exists only for the Turks, to serve whom the Rayas are permitted to live. Through several centuries of Turkish rule, when the Raya subjects of the Turks were in grossest ignorance and widely scattered in the country, they came to accept in stolid52 silence the situation as divinely ordained53. Something of the fatalism of their masters seemed to settle down upon even the Christian subjects and, with little complaint, almost human slavery was accepted.
If the immediate54 possessions of Turkey include a population of about 24,000,000, probably 6,000,000 of these are nominal55 Christians, and perhaps 1,000,000 are neither Christians nor Mohammedans.
It should be said that among the Turks are found men of great strength of intellect, and not a few of high character. Every one who has been in the country speaks of men of this class whom he has met. All would probably agree with the statement that the Turk as a whole is far better than his government.
It should also be stated that in recent years the Turks themselves have been more boldly open in expressing their intense dissatisfaction with the methods of government administration, especially in the eastern part of the country. The New Turk Party, so called, has no one knows how many followers56, but undoubtedly it represents the modern spirit of unrest and progress. [Pg 80]
OTHER RACES
We need not speak at length of the Circassians, who in some respects are the most interesting race in Asiatic Turkey. These are Mohammedans who came into Turkey in large numbers after the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. Their business is primarily robbery. They are a race which must be reckoned with in the northern half of Asia Minor57. We must pass over the Turkmen, or Turkomans, who can be traced back at least eight centuries. These are also Mohammedans and nomads58 in their habits. They are found in considerable numbers, scattered mainly over the southern half of Asia Minor. There are also the Albanians in the western part of European Turkey, able to substantiate59 their claim of being one of the purest and oldest races in Europe. These number perhaps two million souls, and are more united as a race than either the Circassians or the Turkomen. All three of these peoples are nominally60 Mohammedans, and from them have come some of the ablest and best of the Turkish officials.
The Bulgarians have a government of their own, practically independent of Turkey. Many of these, however, dwell in Macedonia, together with Turks, Albanians, and Greeks, and so constitute an important part of the Macedonian question. These are Christian and were originally a part of the Greek Church, with headquarters at Constantinople. They are a sturdy, vigorous, and intelligent race.
Space forbids the mention of other minor races like the Yezidis, neither is there call for a description of the Arabs who dwell in Arabia and northward61.
It is sufficient to say that all these divergent, crude, and often [Pg 81] hostile races, each with a religion differing from that of all others, together constitute the people of the Turkish empire. The dominating class is the Turk, representing the Mohammedan faith, but far from harmonious62 even among themselves, except as they are practically united in a common hatred63 of the Christians and in a common purpose to keep them from gaining supremacy64 in wealth, number, intelligence, or influence.
Outside of the large coast cities there are but few people in Turkey who are not native to the country. Turkey has offered little attraction to people of other countries for colonization65. Far more are seeking to leave that country than are attempting to enter it. The exactions of the government upon all who dwell within the empire, the insecurity of the protection afforded to life and property, and the risks which gather about trade and commerce are not calculated to attract foreign capital or induce natives of other lands to immigrate66 there.
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1
hereditary
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| adj.遗传的，遗传性的，可继承的，世袭的 | |
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Moslem
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| n.回教徒，穆罕默德信徒；adj.回教徒的，回教的 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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4
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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5
generalization
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| n.普遍性，一般性，概括 | |
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6
superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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7
Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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bigoted
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| adj.固执己见的，心胸狭窄的 | |
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fanaticism
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| n.狂热，盲信 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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11
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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12
insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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13
massacres
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| 大屠杀( massacre的名词复数 )； 惨败 | |
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cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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15
prominence
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| n.突出；显著；杰出；重要 | |
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16
defense
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| n.防御，保卫；[pl.]防务工事；辩护，答辩 | |
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17
subdue
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| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
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18
discreet
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| adj.(言行)谨慎的；慎重的；有判断力的 | |
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19
plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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20
feudal
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| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
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21
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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promiscuously
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| adv.杂乱地，混杂地 | |
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23
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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24
clan
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| n.氏族，部落，宗族，家族，宗派 | |
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25
nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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26
recedes
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| v.逐渐远离( recede的第三人称单数 )；向后倾斜；自原处后退或避开别人的注视；尤指问题 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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caravans
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| （可供居住的）拖车（通常由机动车拖行）( caravan的名词复数 )； 篷车； （穿过沙漠地带的）旅行队（如商队） | |
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29
levying
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| 征（兵）( levy的现在分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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30
blackmail
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| n.讹诈，敲诈，勒索，胁迫，恫吓 | |
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dungeons
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| n.地牢( dungeon的名词复数 ) | |
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32
renowned
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| adj.著名的，有名望的，声誉鹊起的 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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34
professing
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| 声称( profess的现在分词 )； 宣称； 公开表明； 信奉 | |
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35
subduing
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| 征服( subdue的现在分词 )； 克制； 制服； 色变暗 | |
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36
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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37
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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depredation
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| n.掠夺，蹂躏 | |
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39
obnoxious
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| adj.极恼人的，讨人厌的，可憎的 | |
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40
rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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41
spat
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| n.口角，掌击；v.发出呼噜呼噜声 | |
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42
missionaries
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| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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43
unified
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| (unify 的过去式和过去分词)； 统一的； 统一标准的； 一元化的 | |
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44
invaders
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| 入侵者，侵略者，侵入物( invader的名词复数 ) | |
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45
hordes
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| n.移动着的一大群( horde的名词复数 )；部落 | |
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46
foe
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| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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47
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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48
dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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49
disarmed
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| v.裁军( disarm的过去式和过去分词 )；使息怒 | |
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50
yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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51
conserve
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| vt.保存，保护，节约，节省，守恒，不灭 | |
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52
stolid
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| adj.无动于衷的，感情麻木的 | |
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53
ordained
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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54
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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55
nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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56
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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57
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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58
nomads
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| n.游牧部落的一员( nomad的名词复数 )；流浪者；游牧生活；流浪生活 | |
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59
substantiate
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| v.证实；证明...有根据 | |
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60
nominally
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| 在名义上，表面地； 应名儿 | |
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61
northward
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| adv.向北；n.北方的地区 | |
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62
harmonious
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| adj.和睦的，调和的，和谐的，协调的 | |
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63
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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64
supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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65
colonization
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| 殖民地的开拓，殖民，殖民地化； 移殖 | |
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66
immigrate
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| v.（从外国）移来，移居入境 | |
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