In the Cephalopoda there are two teeth, enclosing what is called the mouth; and inside this mouth is a flesh-like substance which represents a tongue and serves for the discrimination of pleasant and unpleasant food. The Crustacea have teeth corresponding to those of the Cephalopoda, namely their anterior7 teeth, and also have the fleshy representative of a tongue. This latter part is found, moreover, in all Testacea, and serves, as in sanguineous animals, for gustatory sensations. Similarly provided also are the Insects. For some of these, such as the Bees and the Flies, have, as already described, their proboscis8 protruding9 from the mouth; while those others that have no such instrument in front have a part which acts as a tongue inside the mouth. Such, for instance, is the case in the Ants and the like. As for teeth, some insects have them, the Bees and the Ants for instance, though in a somewhat modified form, while others that live on fluid nutriment are without them. For in many insects the teeth are not meant to deal with the food, but to serve as weapons.
In some Testacea, as was said in the first treatise10, the organ which is called the tongue is of considerable strength; and in the Cochli (Sea-snails) there are also two teeth, just as in the Crustacea. The mouth in the Cephalopoda is succeeded by a long gullet. This leads to a crop, like that of a bird, and directly continuous with this is the stomach, from which a gut11 runs without windings12 to the vent13. The Sepias and the Poulps resemble each other completely, so far as regards the shape and consistency14 of these parts. But not so the Teuthides (Calamaries). Here, as in the other groups there are the two stomach-like receptacles; but the first of these cavities has less resemblance to a crop, and in neither is the form [or the consistency] the same as in the other kinds, the whole body indeed being made of a softer kind of flesh.
The object of this arrangement of the parts in question is the same in the Cephalopoda as in Birds; for these also are all unable to masticate15 their food; and therefore it is that a crop precedes their stomach.
For purposes of defence, and to enable them to escape from their foes16, the Cephalopoda have what is called their ink. This is contained in a membranous17 pouch18, which is attached to the body and provided with a terminal outlet19 just at the point where what is termed the funnel20 gives issue to the residua of the stomach. This funnel is placed on the ventral surface of the animal. All Cephalopoda alike have this characteristic ink, but chief of all the Sepia, where it is more abundant than in the rest. When the animal is disturbed and frightened it uses this ink to make the surrounding water black and turbid21, and so, as it were, puts a shield in front of its body.
In the Calamaries and the Poulps the ink-bag is placed in the upper part of the body, in close proximity22 to the mytis, whereas in the Sepia it is lower down, against the stomach. For the Sepia has a more plentiful23 supply of ink than the rest, inasmuch as it makes more use of it. The reasons for this are, firstly, that it lives near the shore, and, secondly24, that it has no other means of protection; whereas the Poulp has its long twining feet to use in its defence, and is, moreover, endowed with the power of changing colour. This changing of colour, like the discharge of ink, occurs as the result of fright. As to the Calamary, it lives far out at sea, being the only one of the Cephalopoda that does so; and this gives it protection. These then are the reasons why the ink is more abundant in the Sepia than in the Calamary, and this greater abundance explains the lower position; for it allows the ink to be ejected with ease even from a distance. The ink itself is of an earthy character, in this resembling the white deposit on the surface of a bird’s excrement25 and the explanation in both cases is the same, namely, the absence of a urinary bladder. For, in default of this, it is the ink that serves for the excretion of the earthiest matter. And this is more especially the case in the Sepia, because there is a greater proportion of earth in its composition than in that of the other Cephalopoda. The earthy character of its bone is a clear indication of this. For in the Poulp there is no bone at all, and in the Calamary it is thin and cartilaginous. Why this bone should be present in some Cephalopoda, and wanting in others, and how its character varies in those that have it, has now been set forth26.
These animals, having no blood, are in consequence cold and of a timid character. Now, in some animals, fear causes a disturbance27 of the bowels28, and, in others, a flow of urine from the bladder. Similarly in these it produces a discharge of ink, and, though the ejection of this ink in fright, like that of the urine, is the result of necessity, and, though it is of excremental29 character, yet it is used by nature for a purpose, namely, the protection and safety of the animal that excretes it.
The Crustacea also, both the Caraboid forms and the Crabs30, are provided with teeth, namely their two anterior teeth; and between these they also present the tongue-like piece of flesh, as has indeed been already mentioned. Directly after their mouth comes a gullet, which, if we compare relative sizes, is but small in proportion to the body: and then a stomach, which in the Carabi and some of the Crabs is furnished with a second set of teeth, the anterior teeth being insufficient31 for adequate mastication32. From the stomach a uniform gut runs in a direct line to the excremental vent.
The parts described are to be found also in all the various Testacea. The degree of distinctness, however, with which they are formed varies in the different kinds, and the larger the size of the animal the more easily distinguishable are all these parts severally. In the Sea-snails, for example, we find teeth, hard and sharp, as before mentioned, and between them the flesh-like substance, just as in the Crustacea and Cephalopoda, and again the proboscis, which, as has been stated, is something between a sting and a tongue. Directly after the mouth comes a kind of bird-like crop, then a gullet, succeeded by a stomach, in which is the mecon, as it is styled; and continuous with this mecon is an intestine33, starting directly from it. It is this residual34 substance which appears in all the Testacea to form the most palatable35 morsel36. Purpuras and Whelks, and all other Testacea that have turbinate shells, in structure resemble the Sea-snail. The genera and species of Testacea are very numerous. For there are those with turbinate shells, of which some have just been mentioned; and, besides these, there are bivalves and univalves. Those with turbinate shells may, indeed, after a certain fashion be said to resemble bivalves. For they all from their very birth have an operculum to protect that part of their body which is exposed to view. This is the case with the Purpuras, with Whelks, with the Nerites, and the like. Were it not for this, the part which is undefended by the shell would be very liable to injury by collision with external objects. The univalves also are not without protection. For on their dorsal37 surface they have a shell, and by the under surface they attach themselves to the rocks, and so after a manner become bivalved, the rock representing the second valve. Of these the animals known as Limpets are an example. The bivalves, scallops and mussels, for instance, are protected by the power they have of closing their valves; and the Turbinata by the operculum just mentioned, which transforms them, as it were, crom univalves into bivalves. But of all there is none so perfectly38 protected as the sea-urchin. For here there is a globular shell which encloses the body completely, and which is, moreover, set with sharp spines39. This peculiarity40 distinguishes the sea-urchin from all other Testacea, as has already been mentioned.
The structure of the Testacea and of the Crustacea is exactly the reverse of that of the Cephalopoda. For in the latter the fleshy substance is on the outside and the earthy substance within, whereas in the former the soft parts are inside and the hard part without. In the sea-urchin, however, there is no fleshy part whatsoever.
All the Testacea then, those that have not been mentioned as well as those that have, agree as stated in possessing a mouth with the tongue-like body, a stomach, and a vent for excrement, but they differ from each other in the positions and proportions of these parts. The details, however, of these differences must be looked for in the Researches concerning Animals and the treatises42 on Anatomy43. For while there are some points which can be made clear by verbal description, there are others which are more suited for ocular demonstration44.
Peculiar41 among the Testacea are the sea-urchins and the animals known as Tethya (Ascidians). The sea-urchins have five teeth, and in the centre of these the fleshy body which is common to all the animals we have been discussing. Immediately after this comes a gullet, and then the stomach, divided into a number of separate compartments46, which look like so many distinct stomachs; for the cavities are separate and all contain abundant residual matter. They are all, however, connected with one and the same oesophagus, and they all end in one and the same excremental vent. There is nothing besides the stomach of a fleshy character, as has already been stated. All that can be seen are the so-called ova, of which there are several, contained each in a separate membrane47, and certain black bodies which have no name, and which, beginning at the animal’s mouth, are scattered48 round its body here and there promiscuously49. These sea-urchins are not all of one species, but there are several different kinds, and in all of them the parts mentioned are to be found. It is not, however, in every kind that the so-called ova are edible50. Neither do these attain51 to any size in any other species than that with which we are all familiar. A similar distinction may be made generally in the case of all Testacea. For there is a great difference in the edible qualities of the flesh of different kinds; and in some, moreover, the residual substance known as the mecon is good for food, while in others it is uneatable. This mecon in the turbinated genera is lodged52 in the spiral part of the shell, while in univalves, such as limpets, it occupies the fundus, and in bivalves is placed near the hinge, the so-called ovum lying on the right; while on the opposite side is the vent. The former is incorrectly termed ovum, for it merely corresponds to what in well-fed sanguineous animals is fat; and thus it is that it makes its appearance in Testacea at those seasons of the year when they are in good condition, namely, spring and autumn. For no Testacea can abide53 extremes of temperature, and they are therefore in evil plight54 in seasons of great cold or heat. This is clearly shown by what occurs in the case of the sea-urchins. For though the ova are to be found in these animals even directly they are born, yet they acquire a greater size than usual at the time of full moon; not, as some think, because sea-urchins eat more at that season, but because the nights are then warmer, owing to the moonlight. For these creatures are bloodless, and so are unable to stand cold and require warmth. Therefore it is that they are found in better condition in summer than at any other season; and this all over the world excepting in the Pyrrhean tidal strait. There the sea-urchins flourish as well in winter as in summer. But the reason for this is that they have a greater abundance of food in the winter, because the fish desert the strait at that season.
The number of the ova is the same in all sea-urchins, and is an odd one. For there are five ova, just as there are also five teeth and five stomachs; and the explanation of this is to be found in the fact that the so-called ova are not really ova, but merely, as was said before, the result of the animal’s well-fed condition. Oysters56 also have a so-called ovum, corresponding in character to that of the sea-urchins, but existing only on one side of their body. Now inasmuch as the sea-urchin is of a spherical57 form, and not merely a single disk like the oyster55, and in virtue58 of its spherical shape is the same from whatever side it be examined, its ovum must necessarily be of a corresponding symmetry. For the spherical shape has not the asymmetry59 of the disk-shaped body of the oysters. For in all these animals the head is central, but in the sea-urchin the so-called ovum is above [and symmetrical, while in the oyster it is only one side]. Now the necessary symmetry would be observed were the ovum to form a continuous ring. But this may not be. For it would be in opposition60 to what prevails in the whole tribe of Testacea; for in all the ovum is discontinuous, and in all excepting the sea-urchins asymmetrical61, being placed only on one side of the body. Owing then to this necessary discontinuity of the ovum, which belongs to the sea-urchin as a member of the class, and owing to the spherical shape of its body, which is its individual peculiarity, this animal cannot possibly have an even number of ova. For were they an even number, they would have to be arranged exactly opposite to each other, in pairs, so as to keep the necessary symmetry; one ovum of each pair being placed at one end, the other ovum at the other end of a transverse diameter. This again would violate the universal provision in Testacea. For both in the oysters and in the scallops we find the ovum only on one side of the circumference62. The number then of the ova must be uneven63, three for instance, or five. But if there were only three they would be much too far apart; while, if there were more than five, they would come to form a continuous mass. The former arrangement would be disadvantageous to the animal, the latter an impossibility. There can therefore be neither more nor less than five. For the same reason the stomach is divided into five parts, and there is a corresponding number of teeth. For seeing that the ova represent each of them a kind of body for the animal, their disposition64 must conform to that of the stomach, seeing that it is from this that they derive65 the material for their growth. Now if there were only one stomach, either the ova would be too far off from it, or it would be so big as to fill up the whole cavity, and the sea-urchin would have great difficulty in moving about and finding due nourishment66 for its repletion67. As then there are five intervals69 between the five ova, so are there of necessity five divisions of the stomach, one for each interval68. So also, and on like grounds, there are five teeth. For nature is thus enabled to allot70 to each stomachal compartment45 and ovum its separate and similar tooth. These, then, are the reasons why the number of ova in the sea-urchin is an odd one, and why that odd number is five. In some sea-urchins the ova are excessively small, in others of considerable size, the explanation being that the latter are of a warmer constitution, and so are able to concoct71 their food more thoroughly72; while in the former concoction73 is less perfect, so that the stomach is found full of residual matter, while the ova are small and uneatable. Those of a warmer constitution are, moreover, in virtue of their warmth more given to motion, so that they make expeditions in search of food, instead of remaining stationary74 like the rest. As evidence of this, it will be found that they always have something or other sticking to their spines, as though they moved much about; for they use their spines as feet.
The Ascidians differ but slightly from plants, and yet have more of an animal nature than the sponges, which are virtually plants and nothing more. For nature passes from lifeless objects to animals in such unbroken sequence, interposing between them beings which live and yet are not animals, that scarcely any difference seems to exist between two neighbouring groups owing to their close proximity.
A sponge, then, as already said, in these respects completely resembles a plant, that throughout its life it is attached to a rock, and that when separated from this it dies. Slightly different from the sponges are the so-called Holothurias and the sea-lungs, as also sundry75 other sea-animals that resemble them. For these are free and unattached. Yet they have no feeling, and their life is simply that of a plant separated from the ground. For even among land-plants there are some that are independent of the soil, and that spring up and grow, either upon other plants, or even entirely76 free. Such, for example, is the plant which is found on Parnassus, and which some call the Epipetrum. This you may hang up on a peg77 and it will yet live for a considerable time. Sometimes it is a matter of doubt whether a given organism should be classed with plants or with animals. The Ascidians, for instance, and the like so far resemble plants as that they never live free and unattached, but, on the other hand, inasmuch as they have a certain flesh-like substance, they must be supposed to possess some degree of sensibility.
An Ascidian has a body divided by a single septum and with two orifices, one where it takes in the fluid matter that ministers to its nutrition, the other where it discharges the surplus of unused juice, for it has no visible residual substance, such as have the other Testacea. This is itself a very strong justification78 for considering an Ascidian, and anything else there may be among animals that resembles it, to be of a vegetable character; for plants also never have any residuum. Across the middle of the body of these Ascidians there runs a thin transverse partition, and here it is that we may reasonably suppose the part on which life depends to be situated79.
The Acalephae, or Sea-nettles, as they are variously called, are not Testacea at all, but lie outside the recognized groups. Their constitution, like that of the Ascidians, approximates them on one side to plants, on the other to animals. For seeing that some of them can detach themselves and can fasten upon their food, and that they are sensible of objects which come in contact with them, they must be considered to have an animal nature. The like conclusion follows from their using the asperity80 of their bodies as a protection against their enemies. But, on the other hand, they are closely allied81 to plants, firstly by the imperfection of their structure, secondly by their being able to attach themselves to the rocks, which they do with great rapidity, and lastly by their having no visible residuum notwithstanding that they possess a mouth.
Very similar again to the Acalephae are the Starfishes. For these also fasten on their prey82, and suck out its juices, and thus destroy a vast number of oysters. At the same time they present a certain resemblance to such of the animals we have described as the Cephalopoda and Crustacea, inasmuch as they are free and unattached. The same may also be said of the Testacea.
Such, then, is the structure of the parts that minister to nutrition and which every animal must possess. But besides these organs it is quite plain that in every animal there must be some part or other which shall be analogous to what in sanguineous animals is the presiding seat of sensation. Whether an animal has or has not blood, it cannot possibly be without this. In the Cephalopoda this part consists of a fluid substance contained in a membrane, through which runs the gullet on its way to the stomach. It is attached to the body rather towards its dorsal surface, and by some is called the mytis. Just such another organ is found also in the Crustacea and there too is known by the same name. This part is at once fluid and corporeal83 and, as before said, is traversed by the gullet. For had the gullet been placed between the mytis and the dorsal surface of the animal, the hardness of the back would have interfered84 with its due dilatation in the act of deglutition. On the outer surface of the mytis runs the intestine; and in contact with this latter is placed the ink-bag, so that it may be removed as far as possible from the mouth and its obnoxious85 fluid be kept at a distance from the nobler and sovereign part. The position of the mytis shows that it corresponds to the heart of sanguineous animals; for it occupies the self-same place. The same is shown by the sweetness of its fluid, which has the character of concocted86 matter and resembles blood.
In the Testacea the presiding seat of sensation is in a corresponding position, but is less easily made out. It should, however, always be looked for in some midway position; namely, in such Testacea as are stationary, midway between the part by which food is taken in and the channel through which either the excrement or the spermatic fluid is voided, and, in those species which are capable of locomotion87, invariably midway between the right and left sides.
In Insects this organ, which is the seat of sensation, lies, as was stated in the first treatise, between the head and the cavity which contains the stomach. In most of them it consists of a single part; but in others, for instance in such as have long bodies and resemble the Juli (Millipedes), it is made up of several parts, so that such insects continue to live after they have been cut in pieces. For the aim of nature is to give to each animal only one such dominant88 part; and when she is unable to carry out this intention she causes the parts, though potentially many, to work together actually as one. This is much more clearly marked in some insects than in others.
The parts concerned in nutrition are not alike in all insects, but show considerable diversity. Thus some have what is called a sting in the mouth, which is a kind of compound instrument that combines in itself the character of a tongue and of lips. In others that have no such instrument in front there is a part inside the mouth that answers the same sensory purposes. Immediately after the mouth comes the intestine, which is never wanting in any insect. This runs in a straight line and without further complication to the vent; occasionally, however, it has a spiral coil. There are, moreover, some insects in which a stomach succeeds to the mouth, and is itself succeeded by a convoluted89 intestine, so that the larger and more voracious90 insects may be enabled to take in a more abundant supply of food. More curious than any are the Cicadae. For here the mouth and the tongue are united so as to form a single part, through which, as through a root, the insect sucks up the fluids on which it lives. Insects are always small eaters, not so much because of their diminutive91 size as because of their cold temperament92. For it is heat which requires sustenance93; just as it is heat which speedily concocts94 it. But cold requires no sustenance. In no insects is this so conspicuous95 as in these Cicadae. For they find enough to live on in the moisture which is deposited from the air. So also do the Ephemera that are found about the Black sea. But while these latter only live for a single day, the Cicadae subsist6 on such food for several days, though still not many.
We have now done with the internal parts of animals, and must therefore return to the consideration of the external parts which have not yet been described. It will be better to change our order of exposition and begin with the animals we have just been describing, so that proceeding96 from these, which require less discussion, our account may have more time to spend on the perfect kinds of animals, those namely that have blood.
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whatsoever
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| adv.（用于否定句中以加强语气）任何；pron.无论什么 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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lodge
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| v.临时住宿，寄宿，寄存，容纳；n.传达室，小旅馆 | |
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sensory
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| adj.知觉的，感觉的，知觉器官的 | |
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subsist
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| vi.生存，存在，供养 | |
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anterior
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| adj.较早的；在前的 | |
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proboscis
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| n.（象的）长鼻 | |
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protruding
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| v.（使某物）伸出，（使某物）突出( protrude的现在分词 )；凸 | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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gut
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| n.[pl.]胆量；内脏；adj.本能的；vt.取出内脏 | |
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windings
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| （道路、河流等）蜿蜒的，弯曲的( winding的名词复数 )； 缠绕( wind的现在分词 )； 卷绕； 转动（把手） | |
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vent
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| n.通风口，排放口；开衩；vt.表达，发泄 | |
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consistency
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| n.一贯性，前后一致，稳定性；(液体的)浓度 | |
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masticate
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| v.咀嚼 | |
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foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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membranous
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| adj.膜的，膜状的 | |
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pouch
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| n.小袋，小包，囊状袋；vt.装...入袋中，用袋运输；vi.用袋送信件 | |
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outlet
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| n.出口/路；销路；批发商店；通风口；发泄 | |
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funnel
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| n.漏斗；烟囱；v.汇集 | |
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turbid
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| adj.混浊的，泥水的，浓的 | |
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proximity
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| n.接近，邻近 | |
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plentiful
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| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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excrement
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| n.排泄物，粪便 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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bowels
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| n.肠，内脏，内部；肠( bowel的名词复数 )；内部，最深处 | |
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excremental
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| adj.排泄物的，粪便的 | |
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crabs
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| n.蟹( crab的名词复数 )；阴虱寄生病；蟹肉v.捕蟹( crab的第三人称单数 ) | |
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insufficient
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| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
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mastication
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| n.咀嚼 | |
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intestine
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| adj.内部的；国内的；n.肠 | |
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residual
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| adj.复播复映追加时间；存留下来的，剩余的 | |
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palatable
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| adj.可口的，美味的；惬意的 | |
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morsel
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| n.一口，一点点 | |
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dorsal
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| adj.背部的，背脊的 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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spines
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| n.脊柱( spine的名词复数 )；脊椎；（动植物的）刺；书脊 | |
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peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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treatises
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| n.专题著作，专题论文，专著( treatise的名词复数 ) | |
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anatomy
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| n.解剖学，解剖；功能，结构，组织 | |
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demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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compartment
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| n.卧车包房，隔间；分隔的空间 | |
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compartments
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| n.间隔( compartment的名词复数 )；（列车车厢的）隔间；（家具或设备等的）分隔间；隔层 | |
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membrane
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| n.薄膜，膜皮，羊皮纸 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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promiscuously
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| adv.杂乱地，混杂地 | |
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edible
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| n.食品，食物；adj.可食用的 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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abide
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| vi.遵守；坚持；vt.忍受 | |
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plight
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| n.困境，境况，誓约，艰难；vt.宣誓，保证，约定 | |
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oyster
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| n.牡蛎；沉默寡言的人 | |
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oysters
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| 牡蛎( oyster的名词复数 ) | |
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spherical
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| adj.球形的；球面的 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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asymmetry
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| n.不对称；adj.不对称的，不对等的 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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asymmetrical
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| adj.不均匀的，不对称的 | |
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circumference
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| n.圆周，周长，圆周线 | |
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uneven
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| adj.不平坦的，不规则的，不均匀的 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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nourishment
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| n.食物，营养品；营养情况 | |
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repletion
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| n.充满，吃饱 | |
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interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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allot
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| v.分配；拨给；n.部分；小块菜地 | |
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concoct
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| v.调合，制造 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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concoction
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| n.调配(物)；谎言 | |
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stationary
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| adj.固定的，静止不动的 | |
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sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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peg
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| n.木栓，木钉；vt.用木钉钉，用短桩固定 | |
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justification
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| n.正当的理由；辩解的理由 | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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asperity
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| n.粗鲁，艰苦 | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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corporeal
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| adj.肉体的，身体的；物质的 | |
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interfered
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| v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉 | |
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obnoxious
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| adj.极恼人的，讨人厌的，可憎的 | |
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concocted
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| v.将（尤指通常不相配合的）成分混合成某物( concoct的过去式和过去分词 )；调制；编造；捏造 | |
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locomotion
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| n.运动，移动 | |
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dominant
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| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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convoluted
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| adj.旋绕的；复杂的 | |
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voracious
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| adj.狼吞虎咽的，贪婪的 | |
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diminutive
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| adj.小巧可爱的，小的 | |
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temperament
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| n.气质，性格，性情 | |
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sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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concocts
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| v.将（尤指通常不相配合的）成分混合成某物( concoct的第三人称单数 )；调制；编造；捏造 | |
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conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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