1. The Bayt al-Ansari, or descendants of Abu Ayyub, a most noble race whose tree ramifies through a space of fifteen hundred years. They keep the keys of the Kuba Mosque4, and are Imams in the Harim, but the family is no longer wealthy or powerful.
2. The Bayt Abu Jud: they supply the Harim with Imams and Mu’ezzins.1 I was told that there are now but two surviving members of this family, a boy and a girl.
3. The Bayt al-Sha’ab, a numerous race. Some of the members travel professionally, others trade, and others are employed in the Harim.
4. The Bayt al-Karrani, who are mostly engaged in commerce.
There is also a race called Al-Nakhawilah,2 who, according to some, are descendants of the Ansar, whilst others derive6 them from Yazid, the son of Mu’awiyah: the latter opinion is improbable, as the Caliph in question was a mortal foe7 to Ali’s family, which is inordinately8 venerated9 by these people. As far as I could ascertain10, they abuse the Shaykhayn (Abu Bakr and Omar): all my informants agreed upon this point, but none could tell me why they neglected to bedevil Osman, the third object of hatred11 to the Shi’ah persuasion12. They are numerous and warlike, yet they are despised by the townspeople, because they openly profess5 heresy13, and are moreover of humble14 degree. They have their own priests and instructors15, although subject to the orthodox Kazi; marry in their own sect16, are confined to low offices, such as slaughtering17 animals, sweeping18, and gardening, and are not allowed to enter the Harim during life, or to be carried to it after death. Their corpses19 are taken down an outer street called the Darb al-Janazah — Road of Biers — to their own cemetery21 near Al-Bakia. They dress and speak Arabic, like the townspeople; but the Arabs pretend to distinguish them by a peculiar22 look denoting their degradation23: it is doubtless the mistake of effect for cause, about all such
“Tribes of the wandering foot and weary breast.”
A number of reports are current about the horrid24 customs of these people, and their community of women3 with the Persian pilgrims who pass through the town. It need scarcely be said that such tales coming from the mouths of fanatic26 foes27 are not to be credited. I regret not having had an opportunity to become intimate with any of the Nakhawilah, from whom curious information might be elicited28. Orthodox Moslems do not like to be questioned about such hateful subjects; when I attempted to learn something from one of my acquaintance, Shaykh Ula al-Din, of a Kurd family, settled at Al-Madinah, a man who had travelled over the East, and who spoke30 five languages to perfection, he coldly replied that he had never consorted31 with these heretics. Sayyids and Sharifs,4 the descendants of the Prophet, here abound32. The Benu Hosayn of Al-Madinah have their head-quarters at Suwayrkiyah:5 the former place contains six or seven families; the latter, ninety-three or ninety-four. Anciently they were much more numerous, and such was their power, that for centuries they retained charge of the Prophet’s tomb. They subsist33 principally upon their Amlak, property in land, for which they have title-deeds extending back to Mohammed’s day, and Aukaf, religious bequests34; popular rumour36 accuses them of frequent murders for the sake of succession. At Al-Madinah they live chiefly at the Hosh Ibn Sa’ad, a settlement outside the town and south of the Darb al-Janazah. There is, however, no objection to their dwelling37 within the walls; and they are taken to the Harim after death, if there be no evil report against the individual. Their burial-place is the Bakia cemetery. The reason of this toleration is, that some are supposed to be Sunni, or orthodox, and even the most heretical keep their “Rafz6” (heresy) a profound secret. Most learned Arabs believe that they belong, like the Persians, to the sect of Ali: the truth, however, is so vaguely38 known, that I could find out none of the peculiarities39 of their faith, till I met a Shirazi friend at Bombay. The Benu Hosayn are spare dark men of Badawi appearance, and they dress in the old Arab style still affected40 by the Sharifs — a Kufiyah (kerchief) on the head,7 and a Banish41, a long and wide-sleeved garment resembling our magicians’ gown, thrown over the white cotton Kamis (shirt): in public they always carry swords, even when others leave weapons at home. There are about two hundred families of Sayyid Alawiyah — descendants of Ali by any of his wives but Fatimah, they bear no distinctive42 mark in dress or appearance, and are either employed at the temple or engage at trade. Of the Khalifiyah, or descendants of Abbas, there is, I am told, but one household, the Bayt Al-Khalifah, who act as Imams in the Harim, and have charge of Hamzah’s tomb. Some declare that there are a few of the Siddikiyah, or descendants from Abu Bakr; others ignore them, and none could give me any information about the Benu Najjar.
The rest of the population of Al-Madinah is a motley race composed of offshoots from every nation in Al-Islam. The sanctity of the city attracts strangers, who, purposing to stay but a short time, become residents; after finding some employment, they marry, have families, die, and are buried there with an eye to the spiritual advantages of the place. I was much importuned43 to stay at Al-Madinah. The only known physician was one Shaykh Abdullah Sahib, an Indian, a learned man, but of so melancholic44 a temperament45, and so ascetic46 in his habits, that his knowledge was entirely47 lost to the public. “Why dost thou not,” said my friends, “hire a shop somewhere near the Prophet’s Mosque? There thou wilt48 eat bread by thy skill, and thy soul will have the blessing49 of being on holy ground.” Shaykh Nur also opined after a short residence at Al-Madinah that it was bara jannati Shahr, a “very heavenly City,” and little would have induced him to make it his home. The present ruling race at Al-Madinah, in consequence of political vicissitudes50, is the “Sufat,8” sons of Turkish fathers by Arab mothers. These half-castes are now numerous, and have managed to secure the highest and most lucrative51 offices. Besides Turks, there are families originally from the Maghrib, Takruris, Egyptians in considerable numbers, settlers from Al-Yaman and other parts of Arabia, Syrians, Kurds, Afghans, Daghistanis from the Caucasus, and a few Jawis — Java Moslems. The Sindis, I was told, reckon about one hundred families, who are exceedingly despised for their cowardice52 and want of manliness53, whilst the Baluch and the Afghan are respected. The Indians are not so numerous in proportion here as at Meccah; still Hindustani is by no means uncommonly54 heard in the streets. They preserve their peculiar costume, the women persisting in showing their faces, and in wearing tight, exceedingly tight, pantaloons. This, together with other reasons, secures for them the contempt of the Arabs. At Al-Madinah they are generally small shopkeepers, especially druggists and sellers of Kumash (cloth), and they form a society of their own. The terrible cases of misery55 and starvation which so commonly occur among the improvident56 Indians at Jeddah and Meccah are here rare.
The Hanafi school holds the first rank at Al-Madinah, as in most parts of Al-Islam, although many of the citizens, and almost all the Badawin, are Shafe’is. The reader will have remarked with astonishment57 that at one of the fountain-heads of the faith, there are several races of schismatics, the Benu Hosayn, the Benu Ali, and the Nakhawilah. At the town of Safra there are said to be a number of the Zuyud schismatics,9 who visit Al-Madinah, and have settled in force at Meccah, and some declare that the Bayazi sect10 also exists.
The citizens of Al-Madinah are a favoured race, although the city is not, like Meccah, the grand mart of the Moslem29 world or the meeting-place of nations. They pay no taxes, and reject the idea of a “Miri,” or land-cess, with extreme disdain58. “Are we, the children of the Prophet,” they exclaim, “to support or to be supported?” The Wahhabis, not understanding the argument, taxed them, as was their wont59, in specie and in materials, for which reason the very name of those Puritans is an abomination. As has before been shown, all the numerous attendants at the Mosque are paid partly by the Sultan, partly by Aukaf, the rents of houses and lands bequeathed to the shrine60, and scattered61 over every part of the Moslem world. When a Madani is inclined to travel, he applies to the Mudir al-Harim, and receives from him a paper which entitles him to the receipt of a considerable sum at Constantinople. “The “Ikram” (honorarium62), as it is called, varies with the rank of the recipient63, the citizens being divided into these four orders, viz.
First and highest, the Sadat (Sayyids),11 and Ima[m]s, who are entitled to twelve purses, or about ￡60. Of these there are said to be three hundred families.
The Khanahdan, who keep open house and receive poor strangers gratis64. Their Ikram amounts to eight purses, and they number from a hundred to a hundred and fifty families.
The Ahali12 (burghers) or Madani properly speaking, who have homes and families, and were born in Al-Madinah. They claim six purses.
The Mujawirin, strangers, as Egyptians or Indians, settled at, though not born in, Al-Madinah. Their honorarium is four purses.
The Madani traveller, on arrival at Constantinople, reports his arrival to his Consul65, the Wakil al-Haramayn. This “Agent of the two Holy Places” applies to the Nazir al-Aukaf, or “Intendant of Bequests”; the latter, after transmitting the demand to the different officers of the treasury66, sends the money to the Wakil, who delivers it to the applicant67. This gift is sometimes squandered68 in pleasure, more often profitably invested either in merchandise or in articles of home-use, presents of dress and jewellery for the women, handsome arms, especially pistols and Balas13 (yataghans), silk tassels69, amber70 pipe-pieces, slippers71, and embroidered72 purses. They are packed up in one or two large Sahharahs, and then commences the labour of returning home gratis. Besides the Ikram, most of the Madani, when upon these begging trips, are received as guests by great men at Constantinople. The citizens whose turn it is not to travel, await the Aukaf and Sadakat (bequests and alms),14 forwarded every year by the Damascus Caravan73; besides which, as has been before explained, the Harim supplies even those not officially employed in it with many perquisites74.
Without these advantages Al-Madinah would soon be abandoned to cultivators and Badawin. Though commerce is here honourable75, as everywhere in the East, business is “slack,15” because the higher classes prefer the idleness of administering their landed estates, and being servants to the Mosque. I heard of only four respectable houses, Al-Isawi, Al-Sha’ab, Abd al-Jawwad, and a family from Al-Shark (the Eastern Region).16 They all deal in grain, cloth, and provisions, and perhaps the richest have a capital of twenty thousand dollars. Caravans77 in the cold weather are constantly passing between Al-Madinah and Egypt, but they are rather bodies of visitors to Constantinople than traders travelling for gain. Corn is brought from Jeddah by land, and imported into Yambu’ or via Al-Rais, a port on the Red Sea, one day and a half’s journey from Safra. There is an active provision trade with the neighbouring Badawin, and the Syrian Hajj supplies the citizens with apparel and articles of luxury — tobacco, dried fruits, sweetmeats, knives, and all that is included under the word “notions.” There are few store-keepers, and their dealings are petty, because articles of every kind are brought from Egypt, Syria, and Constantinople. As a general rule, labour is exceedingly expensive,17 and at the Visitation time a man will demand fifteen or twenty piastres from a stranger for such a trifling78 job as mending an umbrella. Handicraftsmen and artisans — carpenters, masons, locksmiths, potters, and others — are either slaves or foreigners, mostly Egyptians.18 This proceeds partly from the pride of the people. They are taught from their childhood that the Madani is a favoured being, to be respected however vile79 or schismatic; and that the vengeance80 of Allah will fall upon any one who ventures to abuse, much more to strike him.19 They receive a stranger at the shop window with the haughtiness81 of Pashas, and take pains to show him, by words as well as by looks, that they consider themselves as “good gentlemen as the king, only not so rich.” Added to this pride are indolence, and the true Arab prejudice, which, even in the present day, prevents a Badawi from marrying the daughter of an artisan. Like Castilians, they consider labour humiliating to any but a slave; nor is this, as a clever French author remarks, by any means an unreasonable82 idea, since Heaven, to punish man for disobedience, caused him to eat daily bread by the sweat of his brow. Besides, there is degradation, moral and physical, in handiwork compared with the freedom of the Desert. The loom83 and the file do not conserve84 courtesy and chivalry85 like the sword and spear; man “extends his tongue,” to use an Arab phrase, when a cuff86 and not a stab is to be the consequence of an injurious expression. Even the ruffian becomes polite in California, where his brother-ruffian carries his revolver, and those European nations who were most polished when every gentleman wore a rapier, have become the rudest since Civilisation87 disarmed88 them.
By the tariff89 quoted below it will be evident that Al-Madinah is not a cheap place.20 Yet the citizens, despite their being generally in debt, manage to live well. Their cookery, like that of Meccah, has borrowed something from Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Persia, and India: as all Orientals, they are exceedingly fond of clarified butter.21
I have seen the boy Mohammed drink off nearly a tumbler-full, although his friends warned him that it would make him as fat as an elephant. When a man cannot enjoy clarified butter in these countries, it is considered a sign that his stomach is out of order, and all my excuses of a melancholic temperament were required to be in full play to prevent the infliction90 of fried meat swimming in grease, or that guest-dish,22 rice saturated91 with melted — perhaps I should say — rancid butter. The “Samn” of Al-Hijaz, however, is often fresh, being brought in by the Badawin; it has not therefore the foul92 flavour derived93 from the old and impregnated skin-bag which distinguishes the “ghi” of India.23 The house of a Madani in good circumstances is comfortable, for the building is substantial, and the attendance respectable. Black slave-girls here perform the complicated duties of servant-maids in England; they are taught to sew, to cook, and to wash, besides sweeping the house and drawing water for domestic use. Hasinah (the “Charmer,” a decided94 misnomer) costs from $40 to $50; if she be a mother, her value is less; but neat-handedness, propriety95 of demeanour, and skill in feminine accomplishments96, raise her to $100=￡25. A little black boy, perfect in all his points, and tolerably intelligent, costs about a thousand piastres; girls are dearer, and eunuchs fetch double that sum. The older the children become, the more their value diminishes; and no one would purchase[,] save under exceptional circumstances, an adult slave, because he is never parted with but for some incurable97 vice98. The Abyssinian, mostly Galla, girls, so much prized because their skins are always cool in the hottest weather, are here rare; they seldom sell for less than ￡20, and they often fetch ￡60. I never heard of a Jariyah Bayza, a white slave girl, being in the market at Al-Madinah: in Circassia they fetch from ￡100 to ￡400 prime cost, and few men in Al-Hijaz could afford so expensive a luxury. The Bazar at Al-Madinah is poor, and as almost all the slaves are brought from Meccah by the Jallabs, or drivers, after exporting the best to Egypt, the town receives only the refuse.24
The personal appearance of the Madani makes the stranger wonder how this mongrel population of settlers has acquired a peculiar and almost an Arab physiognomy. They are remarkably99 fair, the effect of a cold climate; sometimes the cheeks are lighted up with red, and the hair is a dark chestnut100 — at Al-Madinah I was not stared at as a white man. The cheeks and different parts of the children’s bodies are sometimes marked with Mashali or Tashrih, not the three long stripes of the Meccans,25 but little scars generally in threes. In some points they approach very near the true Arab type, that is to say, the Badawi of ancient and noble family. The cheek-bones are high and saillant, the eye small, more round than long, piercing, fiery101, deep-set, and brown rather than black. The head is small, the ears well-cut, the face long and oval, though not unfrequently disfigured by what is popularly called the “lantern-jaw”; the forehead high, bony, broad, and slightly retreating, and the beard and mustachios scanty102, consisting of two tufts upon the chin, with, generally speaking, little or no whisker. These are the points of resemblance between the city and the country Arab. The difference is equally remarkable104. The temperament of the Madani is not purely105 nervous, like that of the Badawi, but admits a large admixture of the bilious106, and, though rarely, the lymphatic. The cheeks are fuller, the jaws107 project more than in the pure race, the lips are more fleshy, more sensual and ill-fitting; the features are broader, and the limbs are stouter108 and more bony. The beard is a little thicker, and the young Arabs of the towns are beginning to imitate the Turks in that abomination to their ancestors — shaving. Personal vanity, always a ruling passion among Orientals, and a hopeless wish to emulate109 the flowing beards of the Turks and the Persians — perhaps the only nations in the world who ought not to shave the chin — have overruled even the religious objections to such innovation. I was more frequently appealed to at Al-Madinah than anywhere else, for some means of removing the opprobrium110 “Kusah,” or scant103-bearded man. They blacken the beard with gall-nuts, henna, and other preparations, especially the Egyptian mixture, composed of sulphate of iron one part, ammoniure of iron one part, and gall-nuts two parts, infused in eight parts of distilled111 water. It is a very bad dye. Much refinement112 of dress is now found at Al-Madinah — Constantinople, the Paris of the East, supplying it with the newest fashions. Respectable men wear either a Benish or a Jubbah; the latter, as at Meccah, is generally of some light and flashy colour, gamboge, yellow, tender green, or bright pink.
This is the sign of a “dressy” man. If you have a single coat, it should be of some modest colour, as a dark violet; to appear always in the same tender green, or bright pink, would excite derision. But the Hijazis, poor and rich, always prefer these tulip tints113. The proper Badan, or long coat without sleeves, still worn in truly Arab countries, is here confined to the lowest classes. That ugliest of head-dresses, the red Tunisian cap, called “Tarbush,26” is much used, only the Arabs have too much regard for their eyes and faces to wear it, as the Turks do, without a turband. It is with regret that one sees the most graceful114 head-gear imaginable, the Kufiyah and the Aakal, proscribed115 except amongst the Sharifs and the Badawin. The women dress, like the men, handsomely. Indoors they wear, I am told, a Sudayriyah, or boddice of calico and other stuffs, like the Choli of India, which supports the bosom116 without the evils of European stays. Over this is a Saub, or white shirt, of the white stuff called Halaili or Burunjuk, with enormous sleeves, and flowing down to the feet; the Sarwal or pantaloons are not wide, like the Egyptians’, but rather tight, approaching to the Indian cut, without its exaggeration.27 Abroad, they throw over the head a silk or a cotton Milayah, generally chequered white and blue. The Burka (face-veil), all over Al-Hijaz is white, a decided improvement in point of cleanliness upon that of Egypt. Women of all ranks die the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands black; and trace thin lines down the inside of the fingers, by first applying a plaster of henna and then a mixture, called “Shadar,” of gall-nuts, alum, and lime. The hair[,] parted in the centre, is plaited into about twenty little twists called Jadilah.28 Of ornaments117, as usual among Orientals, they have a vast variety, ranging from brass118 and spangles to gold and precious stones; and they delight in strong perfumes, musk119, civet, ambergris, attar of rose, oil of jasmine, aloe-wood, and extract of cinnamon. Both sexes wear Constantinople slippers. The women draw on Khuff, inner slippers, of bright yellow leather, serving for socks, and covering the ankle, with Papush of the same material, sometimes lined with velvet120 and embroidered with a gold sprig under the hollow of the foot. In mourning the men show no difference of dress, like good Moslems, to whom such display of grief is forbidden. But the women, who cannot dissociate the heart and the toilette, evince their sorrow by wearing white clothes and by doffing121 their ornaments. This is a modern custom: the accurate Burckhardt informs us that in his day the women of Al-Madinah did not wear mourning.
The Madani generally appear abroad on foot. Few animals are kept here, on account, I suppose, of the expense of feeding them. The Cavalry122 are mounted on poor Egyptian nags123. The horses generally ridden by rich men are generally Nijdi, costing from $200 to $300. Camels are numerous, but those bred in Al-Hijaz are small, weak, and consequently little prized. Dromedaries of good breed, called Ahrar29 (the noble) and Namani, from the place of that name, are to be had for any sum between $10 and $400; they are diminutive124, but exceedingly swift, surefooted, sagacious, thoroughbred, with eyes like the antelope’s, and muzzles125 that would almost enter a tumbler. Mules126 are not found at Al-Madinah, although popular prejudice does not now forbid the people to mount them. Asses76 come from Egypt and Meccah: I am told that some good animals are to be found in the town, and that certain ignoble127 Badawi clans128 have a fine breed, but I never saw any. Of beasts intended for food, the sheep is the only common one in this part of Al-Hijaz. There are three distinct breeds. The larger animal comes from Nijd and the Anizah Badawin, who drive a flourishing trade; the smaller is a native of the country. Both are the common Arab species, of a tawny129 colour, with a long fat tail. Occasionally one meets with what at Aden is called the Berberah sheep, a totally different beast — white, with a black broad face, a dew-lap, and a short fat tail, that looks as if twisted up into a knot: it was doubtless introduced by the Persians. Cows are rare at Al-Madinah. Beef throughout the East is considered an unwholesome food, and the Badawi will not drink cow’s milk, preferring that of the camel, the ewe, and the goat. The flesh of the latter animal is scarcely ever eaten in the city, except by the poorest classes.
The manners of the Madani are graver and somewhat more pompous130 than those of any Arabs with whom I ever mixed. This they appear to have borrowed from their rulers, the Turks. But their austerity and ceremoniousness are skin-deep. In intimacy131 or in anger the garb132 of politeness is thrown off, and the screaming Arab voice, the voluble, copious133, and emphatic135 abuse, and the mania136 for gesticulation, return in all their deformity. They are great talkers as the following little trait shows. When a man is opposed to more than his match in disputing or bargaining, instead of patiently saying to himself, S’il crache il est mort, he interrupts the adversary137 with a Sall’ ala Mohammed — Bless the Prophet. Every good Moslem is obliged to obey such requisition by responding, Allahumma salli alayh — O Allah bless him! But the Madani curtails138 the phrase to “A’n,30” supposing it to be an equivalent, and proceeds in his loquacity139. Then perhaps the baffled opponent will shout out Wahhid, i.e., “Attest the unity25 of the Deity”; when, instead of employing the usual religious phrases to assert that dogma, he will briefly140 ejaculate “Al,” and hurry on with the course of conversation. As it may be supposed, these wars of words frequently end in violent quarrels; for, to do the Madani justice, they are always ready to fight. The desperate old feud141 between the “Juwwa,” and the “Barra,”— the town and the suburbs — has been put down with the greatest difficulty. The boys, indeed, still keep it up, turning out in bodies and making determined142 onslaughts with sticks and stones.31
It is not to be believed that in a town garrisoned143 by Turkish troops, full of travelled traders, and which supports itself by plundering144 Hajis, the primitive145 virtues146 of the Arab could exist. The Meccans, a dark people, say of the Madani, that their hearts are black as their skins are white.32 This is, of course, exaggerated; but it is not too much to assert that pride, pugnacity147, a peculiar point of honour and a vindictiveness148 of wonderful force and patience, are the only characteristic traits of Arab character which the citizens of Al-Madinah habitually149 display. Here you meet with scant remains150 of the chivalry of the Desert. A man will abuse his guest, even though he will not dine without him, and would protect him bravely against an enemy. And words often pass lightly between individuals which suffice to cause a blood feud amongst Badawin. The outward appearance of decorum is conspicuous151 amongst the Madani. There are no places where Corinthians dwell, as at Meccah, Cairo, and Jeddah. Adultery, if detected, would be punished by lapidation according to the rigour of the Koranic law33; and simple immorality153 by religious stripes, or, if of repeated occurrence, by expulsion from the city. But scandals seldom occur, and the women, I am told, behave with great decency154.34 Abroad, they have the usual Moslem pleasures of marriage, lyings-in, circumcision feasts, holy isitations, and funerals. At home, they employ themselves with domestic matters, and especially in scolding “Hasinah” and “Za’afaran.” In this occupation they surpass even the notable English housekeeper155 of the middle orders of society — the latter being confined to “knagging” at her slavey, whereas the Arab lady is allowed an unbounded extent of vocabulary. At Shaykh Hamid’s house, however, I cannot accuse the women of
“Swearing into strong shudders156
The immortal157 gods who heard them.”
They abused the black girls with unction, but without any violent expletives. At Meccah, however, the old lady in whose house I was living would, when excited by the melancholy158 temperament of her eldest159 son and his irregular hours of eating, scold him in the grossest terms, not unfrequently ridiculous in the extreme. For instance, one of her assertions was that he — the son — was the offspring of an immoral152 mother; which assertion, one might suppose, reflected not indirectly160 upon herself. So in Egypt I have frequently heard a father, when reproving his boy, address him by “O dog, son of a dog!” and “O spawn161 of an Infidel — of a Jew — of a Christian162!” Amongst the men of Al-Madinah I remarked a considerable share of hypocrisy163. Their mouths were as full of religious salutations, exclamations164, and hackneyed quotations166 from the Koran, as of indecency and vile abuse — a point in which they resemble the Persians. As before observed, they preserve their reputation as the sons of a holy city by praying only in public. At Constantinople they are by no means remarkable for sobriety. Intoxicating167 liquors, especially Araki, are made in Al-Madinah, only by the Turks: the citizens seldom indulge in this way at home, as detection by smell is imminent168 among a people of water-bibbers. During the whole time of my stay I had to content myself with a single bottle of Cognac, coloured and scented169 to resemble medicine. The Madani are, like the Meccans, a curious mixture of generosity170 and meanness, of profuseness171 and penuriousness172. But the former quality is the result of ostentation173, the latter is a characteristic of the Semitic race, long ago made familiar to Europe by the Jew. The citizens will run deeply in debt, expecting a good season of devotees to pay off their liabilities, or relying upon the next begging trip to Turkey; and such a proceeding174, contrary to the custom of the Moslem world, is not condemned175 by public opinion. Above all their qualities, personal conceit176 is remarkable: they show it in their strut177, in their looks, and almost in every word. “I am such an one, the son of such an one,” is a common expletive, especially in times of danger; and this spirit is not wholly to be condemned, as it certainly acts as an incentive178 to gallant179 actions. But it often excites them to vie with one another in expensive entertainments and similar vanities. The expression, so offensive to English ears, Inshallah Bukra — Please God, tomorrow — always said about what should be done to-day, is here common as in Egypt or in India. This procrastination180 belongs more or less to all Orientals. But Arabia especially abounds181 in the Tawakkal al’ Allah, ya Shaykh! — Place thy reliance upon Allah, O Shaykh! — enjoined182 when a man should depend upon his own exertions183. Upon the whole, however, though alive to the infirmities of the Madani character, I thought favourably184 of it, finding among this people more of the redeeming185 point, manliness, than in most Eastern nations with whom I am acquainted.
The Arabs, like the Egyptians, all marry. Yet, as usual, they are hard and facetious186 upon that ill-treated subject — matrimony. It has exercised the brain of their wits and sages187, who have not failed to indite188 notable things concerning it. Saith “Harikar al-Hakim” [(]Dominie Do-All) to his nephew Nadan (Sir Witless), whom he would dissuade189 from taking to himself a wife, “Marriage is joy for a month and sorrow for a life, and the paying of settlements and the breaking of back (i.e. under the load of misery), and the listening to a woman’s tongue!” And again we have in verse:—
“They said ‘marry!’ I replied, ‘far be it from me
To take to my bosom a sackful of snakes.
I am free — why then become a slave?
May Allah never bless womankind!’”
And the following lines are generally quoted, as affording a kind of bird’s-eye view of female existence:—
“From 10 (years of age) unto 20,
A repose190 to the eyes of beholders.35
From 20 unto 30,
Still fair and full of flesh.
From 30 unto 40,
A mother of many boys and girls.
From 40 unto 50,
An old woman of the deceitful.
From 50 unto 60,
Slay191 her with a knife.
From 60 unto 70,
The curse of Allah upon them, one and all!”
Another popular couplet makes a most unsupported assertion:—
“They declare womankind to be heaven to man,
I say, ‘Allah, give me Jahannam, and not this heaven.’”
Yet the fair sex has the laugh on its side, for these railers at Al-Madinah as at other places, invariably marry. The marriage ceremony is tedious and expensive. It begins with a Khitbah or betrothal192: the father of the young man repairs to the parent or guardian193 of the girl, and at the end of his visit exclaims, “The Fatihah! we beg of your kindness your daughter for our son.” Should the other be favourable194 to the proposal, his reply is, “Welcome and congratulation to you: but we must perform Istikharah36 (religious lot casting)”; and, when consent is given, both pledge themselves to the agreement by reciting the Fatihah. Then commence negotiations195 about the Mahr or sum settled upon the bride37; and after the smoothing of this difficulty follow feastings of friends and relatives, male and female. The marriage itself is called Akd al-Nikah or Ziwaj. A Walimah or banquet is prepared by the father of the Aris (groom), at his own house, and the Kazi attends to perform the nuptial196 ceremony, the girl’s consent being obtained through her Wakil, any male relation whom she commissions to act for her. Then, with great pomp and circumstance, the Aris visits his Arusah (bride) at her father’s house; and finally, with a Zuffah or procession and sundry197 ceremonies at the Harim, she is brought to her new home. Arab funerals are as simple as their marriages are complicated. Neither Naddabah (myriologist or hired keener), nor indeed any female, even a relation, is present at burials as in other parts of the Moslem world,38 and it is esteemed198 disgraceful for a man to weep aloud. The Prophet, ho doubtless had heard of those pagan mournings, where an effeminate and unlimited199 display of woe200 was often terminated by licentious201 excesses, like the Christian’s half-heathen “wakes,” forbad [a]ught beyond a decent demonstration202 of grief. And his strong good sense enabled him to see through the vanity of professional mourners. At Al-Madinah the corpse20 is interred203 shortly after decease. The bier is carried though the streets at a moderate pace, by friends and relatives,39 these bringing up the rear. Every man who passes lends his shoulder for a minute, a mark of respect to the dead, and also considered a pious134 and a prayerful act. Arrived at the Harim, they carry the corpse in visitation to the Prophet’s window, and pray over it at Osman’s niche204. Finally, it is interred after the usual Moslem fashion in the cemetery Al-Bakia.
Al-Madinah, though pillaged205 by the Wahhabis, still abounds in books. Near the Harim are two Madrasah or colleges, the Mahmudiyah, so called from Sultan Mahmud, and that of Bashir Agha: both have large stores of theological and other works. I also heard of extensive private collections, particularly of one belonging to the Najib al-Ashraf, or chief of the Sharifs, a certain Mohammed Jamal al-Layl, whose father is well-known in India. Besides which, there is a large Wakf or bequest35 of books, presented to the Mosque or entailed206 upon particular families.40 The celebrated207 Mohammed Ibn Abdillah al-Sannusi41 has removed his collection, amounting, it is said, to eight thousand volumes, from Al-Madinah to his house in Jabal Kubays at Meccah. The burial-place of the Prophet, therefore, no longer lies open to the charge of utter ignorance brought against it by my predecessor208.42 The people now praise their Olema for learning, and boast a superiority in respect of science over Meccah. Yet many students leave the place for Damascus and Cairo, where the Riwak al-Haramayn (College of the Two Shrines) in the Azhar Mosque University, is always crowded; and though Omar Effendi boasted to me that his city was full of lore209, he did not appear the less anxious to attend the lectures of Egyptian professors. But none of my informants claimed for Al-Madinah any facilities of studying other than the purely religious sciences.43 Philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, mathematics, and algebra210 cannot be learnt here. I was careful to inquire about the occult sciences, remembering that Paracelsus had travelled in Arabia, and that the Count Cagliostro (Giuseppe Balsamo), who claimed the Meccan Sharif as his father, asserted that about A.D. 1765 he had studied alchemy at Al-Madinah. The only trace I could find was a superficial knowledge of the Magic Mirror. But after denying the Madani the praise of varied211 learning, it must be owned that their quick observation and retentive212 memories have stored up for them an abundance of superficial knowledge, culled213 from conversations in the market and in the camp. I found it impossible here to display those feats214 which in Sind, Southern Persia, Eastern Arabia, and many parts of India, would be looked upon as miraculous215. Most probably one of the company had witnessed the performance of some Italian conjuror216 at Constantinople or Alexandria, and retained a lively recollection of every man?uvre. As linguists217 they are not equal to the Meccans, who surpass all Orientals excepting only the Armenians; the Madani seldom know Turkish, and more rarely still Persian and Indian. Those only who have studied in Egypt chaunt the Koran well. The citizens speak and pronounce44 their language purely; they are not equal to the people of the southern Hijaz, still their Arabic is refreshing218 after the horrors of Cairo and Maskat.
The classical Arabic, be it observed, in consequence of an extended empire, soon split up into various dialects, as the Latin under similar circumstances separated into the Neo-Roman patois219 of Italy, Sicily, Provence, and Languedoc. And though Niebuhr has been deservedly censured220 for comparing the Koranic language to Latin and the vulgar tongue to Italian, still there is a great difference between them, almost every word having undergone some alteration221 in addition to the manifold changes and simplifications of grammar and syntax. The traveller will hear in every part of Arabia that some distant tribe preserves the linguistic222 purity of its ancestors, uses final vowels223 with the noun, and rejects the addition of the pronoun which apocope in the verb now renders necessary.45 But I greatly doubt the existence of such a race of philologists224. In Al-Hijaz, however, it is considered graceful in an old man, especially when conversing225 publicly, to lean towards classical Arabic. On the contrary, in a youth this would be treated as pedantic226 affectation, and condemned in some such satiric227 quotation165 as
“There are two things colder than ice,
A young old man, and an old young man.”
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1
descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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auxiliaries
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| n.助动词 ( auxiliary的名词复数 )；辅助工，辅助人员 | |
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genealogy
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| n.家系，宗谱 | |
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mosque
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| n.清真寺 | |
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profess
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| v.声称，冒称，以...为业，正式接受入教，表明信仰 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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foe
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| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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inordinately
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| adv.无度地，非常地 | |
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venerated
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| 敬重（某人或某事物），崇敬( venerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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persuasion
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| n.劝说；说服；持有某种信仰的宗派 | |
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heresy
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| n.异端邪说；异教 | |
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humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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instructors
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| 指导者，教师( instructor的名词复数 ) | |
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sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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slaughtering
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| v.屠杀，杀戮，屠宰( slaughter的现在分词 ) | |
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sweeping
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| adj.范围广大的，一扫无遗的 | |
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corpses
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| n.死尸，尸体( corpse的名词复数 ) | |
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corpse
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| n.尸体，死尸 | |
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cemetery
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| n.坟墓，墓地，坟场 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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horrid
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| adj.可怕的；令人惊恐的；恐怖的；极讨厌的 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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fanatic
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| n.狂热者，入迷者；adj.狂热入迷的 | |
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foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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elicited
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| 引出，探出( elicit的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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Moslem
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| n.回教徒，穆罕默德信徒；adj.回教徒的，回教的 | |
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30
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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31
consorted
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| v.结伴( consort的过去式和过去分词 )；交往；相称；调和 | |
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32
abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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33
subsist
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| vi.生存，存在，供养 | |
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34
bequests
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| n.遗赠( bequest的名词复数 )；遗产，遗赠物 | |
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bequest
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| n.遗赠；遗产，遗物 | |
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36
rumour
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| n.谣言，谣传，传闻 | |
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37
dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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38
vaguely
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| adv.含糊地，暖昧地 | |
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39
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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40
affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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41
banish
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| vt.放逐，驱逐；消除，排除 | |
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42
distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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43
importuned
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| v.纠缠，向（某人）不断要求( importune的过去式和过去分词 )；（妓女）拉（客） | |
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44
melancholic
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| 忧郁症患者 | |
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45
temperament
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| n.气质，性格，性情 | |
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46
ascetic
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| adj.禁欲的；严肃的 | |
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47
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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48
wilt
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| v.(使)植物凋谢或枯萎；(指人)疲倦，衰弱 | |
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49
blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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50
vicissitudes
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| n.变迁，世事变化；变迁兴衰( vicissitude的名词复数 )；盛衰兴废 | |
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51
lucrative
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| adj.赚钱的，可获利的 | |
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52
cowardice
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| n.胆小，怯懦 | |
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53
manliness
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| 刚毅 | |
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54
uncommonly
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| adv. 稀罕(极，非常) | |
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55
misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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56
improvident
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| adj.不顾将来的，不节俭的，无远见的 | |
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57
astonishment
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| n.惊奇，惊异 | |
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58
disdain
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| n.鄙视，轻视；v.轻视，鄙视，不屑 | |
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59
wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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60
shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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61
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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62
honorarium
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| n.酬金，谢礼 | |
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63
recipient
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| a.接受的,感受性强的 n.接受者,感受者,容器 | |
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64
gratis
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| adj.免费的 | |
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65
consul
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| n.领事；执政官 | |
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66
treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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67
applicant
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| n.申请人，求职者，请求者 | |
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68
squandered
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| v.（指钱，财产等）浪费，乱花( squander的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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69
tassels
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| n.穗( tassel的名词复数 )；流苏状物；（植物的）穗；玉蜀黍的穗状雄花v.抽穗， （玉米）长穗须( tassel的第三人称单数 )；使抽穗， （为了使作物茁壮生长）摘去穗状雄花；用流苏装饰 | |
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70
amber
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| n.琥珀；琥珀色；adj.琥珀制的 | |
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71
slippers
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| n. 拖鞋 | |
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72
embroidered
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| adj．绣花的 | |
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73
caravan
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| n.大蓬车；活动房屋 | |
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74
perquisites
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| n.（工资以外的）财务补贴( perquisite的名词复数 )；额外收入；（随职位而得到的）好处；利益 | |
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75
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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76
asses
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| n. 驴，愚蠢的人，臀部 adv. (常用作后置)用于贬损或骂人 | |
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77
caravans
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| （可供居住的）拖车（通常由机动车拖行）( caravan的名词复数 )； 篷车； （穿过沙漠地带的）旅行队（如商队） | |
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78
trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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vile
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| adj.卑鄙的，可耻的，邪恶的；坏透的 | |
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80
vengeance
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| n.报复，报仇，复仇 | |
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81
haughtiness
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| n.傲慢；傲气 | |
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82
unreasonable
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| adj.不讲道理的，不合情理的，过度的 | |
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83
loom
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| n.织布机，织机；v.隐现，(危险、忧虑等)迫近 | |
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84
conserve
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| vt.保存，保护，节约，节省，守恒，不灭 | |
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85
chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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86
cuff
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| n.袖口；手铐；护腕；vt.用手铐铐；上袖口 | |
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87
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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88
disarmed
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| v.裁军( disarm的过去式和过去分词 )；使息怒 | |
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89
tariff
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| n.关税，税率；(旅馆、饭店等)价目表，收费表 | |
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90
infliction
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| n.（强加于人身的）痛苦，刑罚 | |
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91
saturated
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| a.饱和的，充满的 | |
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92
foul
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| adj.污秽的；邪恶的；v.弄脏；妨害；犯规；n.犯规 | |
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93
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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94
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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95
propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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96
accomplishments
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| n.造诣；完成( accomplishment的名词复数 )；技能；成绩；成就 | |
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97
incurable
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| adj.不能医治的，不能矫正的，无救的；n.不治的病人，无救的人 | |
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98
vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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99
remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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100
chestnut
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| n.栗树，栗子 | |
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101
fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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102
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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103
scant
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| adj.不充分的，不足的；v.减缩，限制，忽略 | |
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104
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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105
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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106
bilious
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| adj.胆汁过多的；易怒的 | |
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107
jaws
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| n.口部；嘴 | |
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108
stouter
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| 粗壮的( stout的比较级 )； 结实的； 坚固的； 坚定的 | |
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109
emulate
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| v.努力赶上或超越，与…竞争；效仿 | |
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110
opprobrium
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| n.耻辱，责难 | |
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111
distilled
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| adj.由蒸馏得来的v.蒸馏( distil的过去式和过去分词 )；从…提取精华 | |
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112
refinement
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| n.文雅；高尚；精美；精制；精炼 | |
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113
tints
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| 色彩( tint的名词复数 )； 带白的颜色； （淡色）染发剂； 痕迹 | |
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114
graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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115
proscribed
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| v.正式宣布（某事物）有危险或被禁止( proscribe的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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116
bosom
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| n.胸，胸部；胸怀；内心；adj.亲密的 | |
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117
ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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118
brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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119
musk
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| n.麝香, 能发出麝香的各种各样的植物，香猫 | |
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120
velvet
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| n.丝绒，天鹅绒；adj.丝绒制的，柔软的 | |
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121
doffing
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| n.下筒，落纱v.脱去，（尤指）脱帽( doff的现在分词 ) | |
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122
cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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123
nags
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| n.不断地挑剔或批评（某人）( nag的名词复数 )；不断地烦扰或伤害（某人）；无休止地抱怨；不断指责v.不断地挑剔或批评（某人）( nag的第三人称单数 )；不断地烦扰或伤害（某人）；无休止地抱怨；不断指责 | |
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124
diminutive
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| adj.小巧可爱的，小的 | |
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125
muzzles
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| 枪口( muzzle的名词复数 )； （防止动物咬人的）口套； （四足动物的）鼻口部； （狗）等凸出的鼻子和口 | |
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126
mules
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| 骡( mule的名词复数 )； 拖鞋； 顽固的人； 越境运毒者 | |
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127
ignoble
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| adj.不光彩的，卑鄙的；可耻的 | |
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128
clans
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| 宗族( clan的名词复数 )； 氏族； 庞大的家族； 宗派 | |
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129
tawny
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| adj.茶色的，黄褐色的；n.黄褐色 | |
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130
pompous
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| adj.傲慢的，自大的；夸大的；豪华的 | |
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131
intimacy
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| n.熟悉，亲密，密切关系，亲昵的言行 | |
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132
garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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133
copious
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| adj.丰富的，大量的 | |
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134
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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135
emphatic
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| adj.强调的，着重的；无可置疑的，明显的 | |
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136
mania
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| n.疯狂；躁狂症，狂热，癖好 | |
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137
adversary
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| adj.敌手，对手 | |
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138
curtails
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| v.截断，缩短( curtail的第三人称单数 ) | |
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139
loquacity
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| n.多话，饶舌 | |
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140
briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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141
feud
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| n.长期不和；世仇；v.长期争斗；世代结仇 | |
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142
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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143
garrisoned
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| 卫戍部队守备( garrison的过去式和过去分词 )； 派部队驻防 | |
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144
plundering
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的现在分词 ) | |
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145
primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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146
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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147
pugnacity
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| n.好斗，好战 | |
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148
vindictiveness
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| 恶毒；怀恨在心 | |
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149
habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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150
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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151
conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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152
immoral
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| adj.不道德的，淫荡的，荒淫的，有伤风化的 | |
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153
immorality
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| n. 不道德, 无道义 | |
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154
decency
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| n.体面，得体，合宜，正派，庄重 | |
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155
housekeeper
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| n.管理家务的主妇，女管家 | |
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156
shudders
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| n.颤动，打颤，战栗( shudder的名词复数 )v.战栗( shudder的第三人称单数 )；发抖；（机器、车辆等）突然震动；颤动 | |
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157
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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158
melancholy
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| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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159
eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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160
indirectly
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| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
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161
spawn
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| n.卵，产物，后代，结果；vt.产卵，种菌丝于，产生，造成；vi.产卵，大量生产 | |
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162
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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163
hypocrisy
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| n.伪善，虚伪 | |
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164
exclamations
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| n.呼喊( exclamation的名词复数 )；感叹；感叹语；感叹词 | |
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165
quotation
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| n.引文，引语，语录；报价，牌价，行情 | |
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166
quotations
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| n.引用( quotation的名词复数 )；[商业]行情（报告）；（货物或股票的）市价；时价 | |
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167
intoxicating
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| a. 醉人的,使人兴奋的 | |
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168
imminent
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| adj.即将发生的，临近的，逼近的 | |
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169
scented
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| adj.有香味的；洒香水的；有气味的v.嗅到(scent的过去分词) | |
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170
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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171
profuseness
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| n.挥霍 | |
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172
penuriousness
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173
ostentation
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| n.夸耀，卖弄 | |
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174
proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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175
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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176
conceit
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| n.自负，自高自大 | |
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177
strut
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| v.肿胀，鼓起；大摇大摆地走；炫耀；支撑；撑开；n.高视阔步；支柱，撑杆 | |
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178
incentive
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| n.刺激；动力；鼓励；诱因；动机 | |
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179
gallant
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| adj.英勇的，豪侠的；(向女人)献殷勤的 | |
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180
procrastination
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| n.拖延，耽搁 | |
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181
abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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182
enjoined
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| v.命令( enjoin的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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183
exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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184
favourably
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| adv. 善意地，赞成地 =favorably | |
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185
redeeming
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| 补偿的，弥补的 | |
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186
facetious
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| adj.轻浮的，好开玩笑的 | |
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187
sages
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| n.圣人( sage的名词复数 )；智者；哲人；鼠尾草（可用作调料） | |
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188
indite
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| v.写（文章，信等）创作 | |
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189
dissuade
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| v.劝阻，阻止 | |
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190
repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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191
slay
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| v.杀死，宰杀，杀戮 | |
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192
betrothal
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| n. 婚约, 订婚 | |
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193
guardian
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| n.监护人；守卫者，保护者 | |
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194
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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195
negotiations
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| 协商( negotiation的名词复数 )； 谈判； 完成（难事）； 通过 | |
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196
nuptial
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| adj.婚姻的，婚礼的 | |
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197
sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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198
esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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199
unlimited
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| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
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200
woe
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| n.悲哀，苦痛，不幸，困难；int.用来表达悲伤或惊慌 | |
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201
licentious
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| adj.放纵的，淫乱的 | |
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202
demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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203
interred
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| v.埋，葬( inter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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204
niche
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| n.壁龛；合适的职务(环境、位置等) | |
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205
pillaged
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| v.抢劫，掠夺( pillage的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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206
entailed
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| 使…成为必要( entail的过去式和过去分词 )； 需要； 限定继承； 使必需 | |
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207
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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208
predecessor
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| n.前辈，前任 | |
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209
lore
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| n.传说；学问，经验，知识 | |
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210
algebra
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| n.代数学 | |
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211
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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212
retentive
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| v.保留的，有记忆的；adv.有记性地，记性强地；n.保持力 | |
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213
culled
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| v.挑选，剔除( cull的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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214
feats
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| 功绩，伟业，技艺( feat的名词复数 ) | |
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215
miraculous
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| adj.像奇迹一样的，不可思议的 | |
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216
conjuror
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| n.魔术师，变戏法者 | |
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217
linguists
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| n.通晓数国语言的人( linguist的名词复数 )；语言学家 | |
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218
refreshing
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| adj.使精神振作的，使人清爽的，使人喜欢的 | |
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219
patois
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| n.方言；混合语 | |
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220
censured
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| v.指责，非难，谴责( censure的过去式 ) | |
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221
alteration
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| n.变更，改变；蚀变 | |
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222
linguistic
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| adj.语言的，语言学的 | |
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223
vowels
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| n.元音，元音字母( vowel的名词复数 ) | |
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224
philologists
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| n.语文学( philology的名词复数 ) | |
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225
conversing
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| v.交谈，谈话( converse的现在分词 ) | |
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226
pedantic
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| adj.卖弄学问的；迂腐的 | |
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227
satiric
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| adj.讽刺的，挖苦的 | |
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