Have you not sometimes seen, in a village, Pierre Aoudri and his wife Peronelle striving to go before their neighbors in a procession? “Our grandfathers,” say they, “rung the bells before those who elbow us now had so much as a stable of their own.”
The vanity of Pierre Aoudri, his wife, and his neighbors knows no better. They grow warm. The quarrel is an important one, for honor is in question. Proofs must now be found. Some learned churchsinger discovers an old rusty1 iron pot, marked with an A, the initial of the brazier’s name who made the pot. Pierre Aoudri persuades himself that it was the helmet of one of his ancestors. So C?sar descended2 from a hero and from the goddess Venus. Such is the history of nations; such is, very nearly, the knowledge of early antiquity3.
The learned of Armenia demonstrate that the terrestrial paradise was in their country. Some profound Swedes demonstrate that it was somewhere about Lake Wenner, which exhibits visible remains4 of it. Some Spaniards, too, demonstrate that it was in Castile. While the Japanese, the Chinese, the Tartars, the Indians, the Africans, and the Americans, are so unfortunate as not even to know that a terrestrial paradise once existed at the sources of the Pison, the Gihon, the Tigris, and the Euphrates, or, which is the same thing, at the sources of the Guadalquivir, the Guadiana, the Douro, and the Ebro. For of Pison we easily make Ph?ris, and of Ph?ris we easily make the B?tis, which is the Guadalquivir. The Gihon, it is plain, is the Guadiana, for they both begin with a G. And the Ebro, which is in Catalonia, is unquestionably the Euphrates, both beginning with an E.
But a Scotchman comes, and in his turn demonstrates that the garden of Eden was at Edinburgh, which has retained its name; and it is not unlikely that, in a few centuries, this opinion will prevail.
The whole globe was once burned, says a man conversant5 with ancient and modern history; for I have read in a journal that charcoal6 quite black has been found a hundred feet deep, among mountains covered with wood. And it is also suspected that there were charcoal-burners in this place.
Phaeton’s adventure sufficiently7 shows that everything has been boiled, even to the bottom of the sea. The sulphur of Mount Vesuvius incontrovertibly proves that the banks of the Rhine, the Danube, the Ganges, the Nile, and the Great Yellow River, are nothing but sulphur, nitre, and oil of guiacum, which only wait for the moment of explosion to reduce the earth to ashes, as it has already once been. The sand on which we walk is an evident proof that the universe has vitrified, and that our globe is nothing but a ball of glass — like our ideas.
But if fire has changed our globe, water has produced still more wonderful revolutions. For it is plain that the sea, the tides of which in our latitudes8 rise eight feet, has produced the mountains, which are sixteen to seventeen thousand feet high. This is so true that some learned men, who never were in Switzerland, found a large vessel9 there, with all its rigging, petrified10, either on Mount St. Gothard or at the bottom of a precipice11 — it is not positively12 known which; but it is quite certain that it was there. Therefore, men were originally fishes — Q. E. D.
Coming down to antiquity less ancient let us speak of the times when most barbarous nations quitted their own countries to seek others which were not much better. It is true, if there be anything true in ancient history, that there were Gaulish robbers who went to plunder13 Rome in the time of Camillus. Other robbers from Gaul had, it is said, passed through Illyria to sell their services as murderers to other murderers in the neighborhood of Thrace: they bartered14 their blood for bread, and at length settled in Galatia. But who were these Gauls? Were they natives of Berry and Anjou? They were, doubtless, some of those Gauls whom the Romans called Cisalpine, and whom we call Transalpine — famishing mountaineers, inhabiting the Alps and the Apennines. The Gauls of the Seine and the Marne did not then know that Rome existed, and could not resolve to cross Mont Cenis, as was afterwards done by Hannibal, to steal the wardrobes of the Roman senators, whose only movables were a gown of bad grey cloth, decorated with a band, the color of bull’s blood, two small knobs of ivory, or rather dog’s bone, fixed15 to the arms of a wooden chair, and a piece of rancid bacon in their kitchens.
The Gauls, who were dying of hunger, finding nothing to eat at home, went to try their fortune farther off; as the Romans afterwards did when they ravaged16 so many countries, and as the people of the North did at a later period when they destroyed the Roman Empire.
And whence have we received our vague information respecting these emigrations? From some lines written at a venture by the Romans; for, as for the Celts, Welsh, or Gauls, whom some would have us believe to have been eloquent17, neither they nor their bards18 could at that time read or write.
But, to infer from these that the Gauls or Celts, afterwards conquered by a few of C?sar’s legions, then by a horde19 of Goths, then by a horde of Burgundians, and lastly by a horde of Sicambri, under one Clodovic, had before subjugated20 the whole earth, and given their names and their laws to Asia, seems to me to be inferring a great deal. The thing, however, is not mathematically impossible; and if it be demonstrated, I assent21: it would be very uncivil to refuse to the Welsh what is granted to the Tartars.
§ II.
On the Antiquity of Usages.
Who have been the greatest fools, and who the most ancient fools? Ourselves or the Egyptians, or the Syrians or some other people? What was signified by our misletoe? Who first consecrated22 a cat? It must have been he who was the most troubled with mice. In what nation did they first dance under the boughs23 of trees in honor of the gods? Who first made processions, and placed fools, with caps and bells, at the head of them? Who first carried a priapus through the streets, and fixed one like a knocker at the door? What Arab first took it into his head to hang his wife’s drawers out at the window, the day after his marriage?
All nations have formerly24 danced at the time of the new moon. Did they then give one another the word? No; no more than they did to rejoice at the birth of a son, or to mourn, or seem to mourn, at the death of a father. Every one is very glad to see the moon again, after having lost her for several nights. There are a hundred usages so natural to all men, that it cannot be said the Biscayans taught them to the Phrygians, or the Phrygians to the Biscayans.
Fire and water have been used in temples. This custom needed no introduction. A priest did not choose always to have his hands dirty. Fire was necessary to cook the immolated25 carcasses, and to burn slips of resinous26 wood and spices, in order to combat the odor of the sacerdotal shambles27.
But the mysterious ceremonies which it is so difficult to understand, the usages which nature does not teach — in what place, when, where, how, why, were they invented? Who communicated them to other nations? It is not likely that it should, at the same time, have entered the head of an Arab and of an Egyptian to cut off one end of his son’s prepuce; nor that a Chinese and a Persian should, both at once, have resolved to castrate little boys.
It can never have been that two fathers, in different countries, have, at the same moment, formed the idea of cutting their sons’ throats to please God. Some nations must have communicated to others their follies28, serious, ridiculous, or barbarous. In this antiquity men love to search, to discover, if possible, the first madman and the first scoundrel who perverted29 human nature.
But how are we to know whether Jehu, in Ph?nicia, by immolating30 his son, was the inventor of sacrifices of human blood? How can we be assured that Lycaon was the first who ate human flesh, when we do not know who first began to eat fowls31?
We seek to know the origin of ancient feasts. The most ancient and the finest is that of the emperors of China tilling and sowing the ground, together with their first mandarins. The second is that of the Thesmophoria at Athens. To celebrate at once agriculture and justice, to show men how necessary they both are, to unite the curb32 of law with the art which is the source of all wealth — nothing is more wise, more pious33, or more useful.
There are old allegorical feasts to be found everywhere, as those of the return of the seasons. It was not necessary that one nation should come from afar off to teach another that marks of joy and friendship for one’s neighbors may be given on the first day of the year. This custom has been that of every people. The Saturnalia of the Romans are better known than those of the Allobroges and the Picts; because there are many Roman writings and monuments remaining, but there are none of the other nations of western Europe.
The feast of Saturn34 was the feast of Time. He had four wings; time flies quickly — his two faces evidently signifying the concluded and the commencing year. The Greeks said that he had devoured35 his father and that he devoured his children. No allegory is more reasonable. Time devours37 the past and the present, and will devour36 the future.
Why seek for vain and gloomy explanations of a feast so universal, so gay, and so well known? When I look well into antiquity, I do not find a single annual festival of a melancholy38 character; or, at least, if they begin with lamentations, they end in dancing and revelry. If tears are shed for Adoni or Adonai, whom we call Adonis, he is soon resuscitated39, and rejoicing takes place. It is the same with the feasts of Isis, Osiris, and Horus. The Greeks, too, did as much for Ceres as for Prosperine. The death of the serpent Python was celebrated40 with gayety. A feast day and a day of joy were one and the same thing. At the feasts of Bacchus this joy was only carried too far.
I do not find one general commemoration of an unfortunate event. The institutors of the feasts would have shown themselves to be devoid41 of common sense if they had established at Athens a celebration of the battle lost at Ch?ronea, and at Rome another of the battle of Cann?.
They perpetuated42 the remembrance of what might encourage men, and not of that which might fill them with cowardice43 or despair. This is so true that fables44 were invented for the purpose of instituting feasts. Castor and Pollux did not fight for the Romans near Lake Regillus; but, at the end of three or four hundred years, some priests said so, and all the people danced. Hercules did not deliver Greece from a hydra45 with seven heads; but Hercules and his hydra were sung.
§ III.
Festivals Founded on Chimeras46.
I do not know that there was, in all antiquity, a single festival founded on an established fact. It has been elsewhere remarked how extremely ridiculous those schoolmen appear who say to you, with a magisterial47 air: “Here is an ancient hymn48 in honor of Apollo, who visited Claros; therefore Apollo went to Claros; a chapel49 was erected50 to Perseus; therefore he delivered Andromeda.” Poor men! You should rather say, therefore there was no Andromeda.
But what, then, will become of that learned antiquity which preceded the olympiads? It will become what it is — an unknown time, a time lost, a time of allegories and lies, a time regarded with contempt by the wise, and profoundly discussed by blockheads, who like to float in a void, like Epicurus’ atoms.
There were everywhere days of penance52, days of expiation53 in the temples; but these days were never called by a name answering to that of feasts. Every feast-day was sacred to diversion; so true is this that the Egyptian priests fasted on the eve in order to eat the more on the morrow — a custom which our monks54 have preserved. There were, no doubt, mournful ceremonies. It was not customary to dance the Greek brawl55 while interring56 or carrying to the funeral pile a son or a daughter; this was a public ceremony, but certainly not a feast.
§ IV.
On the Antiquity of Feasts, Which, It has been Asserted, were Always Mournful.
Men of ingenuity57, profound searchers into antiquity, who would know how the earth was made a hundred thousand years ago, if genius could discover it, have asserted that mankind, reduced to a very small number in both continents, and still terrified at the innumerable revolutions which this sad globe had undergone, perpetuated the remembrance of their calamities58 by dismal59 and mournful commemorations.
“Every feast,” say they, “was a day of horror, instituted to remind men that their fathers had been destroyed by the fires of the volcanoes, by rocks falling from the mountains, by eruptions60 of the sea, by the teeth and claws of wild beasts, by war, pestilence61 and famine.”
Then we are not made as men were then. There was never so much rejoicing in London as after the plague and the burning of the whole city in the reign62 of Charles II. We made songs while the massacres63 of Bartholomew were still going on. Some pasquinades have been preserved which were made the day after the assassination64 of Coligni; there was printed in Paris, Passio Domini nostri Gaspardi Colignii secundum Bartholom?um.
It has a thousand times happened that the sultan who reigns65 in Constantinople has made his eunuchs and odalisks dance in apartments stained with the blood of his brothers and his viziers. What do the people of Paris do on the very day that they are apprised66 of the loss of a battle and the death of a hundred brave officers? They run to the play and the opera.
What did they when the wife of Marshal d’Ancre was given up in the Grève to the barbarity of her persecutors? When Marshal de Marillac was dragged to execution in a wagon67, by virtue68 of a paper signed by robed lackeys69 in Cardinal70 de Richelieu’s ante-chamber? When a lieutenant-general of the army, a foreigner, who had shed his blood for the state, condemned71 by the cries of his infuriated enemies, was led to the scaffold in a dung-cart, with a gag in his mouth? When a young man of nineteen, full of candor72, courage and modesty73, but very imprudent, was carried to the most dreadful of punishments? They sang vaudevilles. Such is man, at least man on the banks of the Seine. Such has he been at all times, for the same reason that rabbits have always had hair, and larks74 feathers.
§ V.
On the Origin of the Arts.
What! we would know the precise theology of Thoth, Zerdusht, or Sanchoniathon, although we know not who invented the shuttle. The first weaver75, the first mason, the first smith were undoubtedly76 great geniuses; yet no account has been made of them. And why? Because not one of them invented a perfect art. He who first hollowed the trunk of an oak for the purpose of crossing a river did not build galleys78; nor did they who piled up unhewn stones, and laid pieces of wood across them, dream of the pyramids. Everything is done by degrees, and the glory belongs to no one.
All was done in the dark, until philosophers, aided by geometry, taught men to proceed with accuracy and safety.
It was left for Pythagoras, on his return from his travels, to show workmen the way to make an exact square. He took three rules: one three, one four, and one five feet long, and with these he made a right-angled triangle. Moreover, it was found that the side 5 furnished a square just equal to the two squares produced by the sides 4 and 3; a method of importance in all regular works.
This is the famous theorem which he had brought from India, and which we have elsewhere said was known in China long before, according to the relation of the Emperor Cam-hi. Long before Plato, the Greeks made use of a single geometrical figure to double the square.
Archytas and Erastothenes invented a method of doubling the cube, which was impracticable by ordinary geometry, and which would have done honor to Archimedes.
This Archimedes found the method of calculating exactly the quantity of alloy79 mixed with gold; for gold had been worked for ages before the fraud of the workers could be discovered. Knavery80 existed long before mathematics. The pyramids, built with the square, and corresponding exactly with the four cardinal points, sufficiently show that geometry was known in Egypt from time immemorial; and yet it is proved that Egypt is quite a new country.
Without philosophy we should be little above the animals that dig or erect51 their habitations, prepare their food in them, take care of their little ones in their dwellings81, and have besides the good fortune, which we have not, of being born ready clothed. Vitruvius, who had travelled in Gaul and Spain, tells us that in his time the houses were built of a sort of mortar82, covered with thatch83 or oak shingles84, and that the people did not make use of tiles. What was the time of Vitruvius? It was that of Augustus. The arts had scarcely yet reached the Spaniards, who had mines of gold and silver; or the Gauls, who had fought for ten years against C?sar.
The same Vitruvius informs us that in the opulent and ingenious town of Marseilles, which traded with so many nations, the roofs were only of a kind of clay mixed with straw.
He says that the Phrygians dug themselves habitations in the ground; they stuck poles round the hollow, brought them together at the top, and laid earth over them. The Hurons and the Algonquins are better lodged85. This gives us no very lofty idea of Troy, built by the gods, and the palace of Priam:
Apparet domus intus, et atria longa patescunt;
Apparent Priami et veterum penetralia regum.
A mighty86 breach87 is made; the rooms concealed88
Appear, and all the palace is revealed —
The halls of audience, and of public state.
— Dryden.
To be sure, the people are not lodged like kings; huts are to be seen near the Vatican and near Versailles. Besides, industry rises and falls among nations by a thousand revolutions:
Et campus ubi Troja fuit.
. . . . the plain where Troy once stood.
We have our arts, the ancients had theirs. We could not make a galley77 with three benches of oars89, but we can build ships with a hundred pieces of cannon90. We cannot raise obelisks91 a hundred feet high in a single piece, but our meridians92 are more exact. The byssus is unknown to us, but the stuffs of Lyons are more valuable. The Capitol was worthy93 of admiration94, the church of St. Peter is larger and more beautiful. The Louvre is a masterpiece when compared with the palace of Persepolis, the situation and ruins of which do but tell of a vast monument to barbaric wealth. Rameau’s music is probably better than that of Timotheus; and there is not a picture presented at Paris in the Hall of Apollo (salon d’Apollon) which does not excel the paintings dug out of Herculaneum.
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rusty
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| adj.生锈的；锈色的；荒废了的 | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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conversant
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| adj.亲近的，有交情的，熟悉的 | |
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charcoal
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| n.炭，木炭，生物炭 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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latitudes
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| 纬度 | |
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vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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petrified
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| adj.惊呆的；目瞪口呆的v.使吓呆，使惊呆；变僵硬；使石化(petrify的过去式和过去分词) | |
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precipice
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| n.悬崖，危急的处境 | |
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positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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bartered
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| v.作物物交换，以货换货( barter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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ravaged
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| 毁坏( ravage的过去式和过去分词 )； 蹂躏； 劫掠； 抢劫 | |
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eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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bards
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horde
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| n.群众，一大群 | |
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subjugated
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assent
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consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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boughs
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formerly
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immolated
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resinous
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shambles
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follies
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| 罪恶，时事讽刺剧； 愚蠢，蠢笨，愚蠢的行为、思想或做法( folly的名词复数 ) | |
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perverted
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immolating
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| v.宰杀…作祭品( immolate的现在分词 ) | |
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fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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curb
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pious
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Saturn
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devoured
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| 吞没( devour的过去式和过去分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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devour
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| v.吞没；贪婪地注视或谛听，贪读；使着迷 | |
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devours
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| 吞没( devour的第三人称单数 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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melancholy
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resuscitated
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| v.使（某人或某物）恢复知觉，苏醒( resuscitate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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celebrated
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devoid
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| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
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perpetuated
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| vt.使永存（perpetuate的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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cowardice
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fables
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hydra
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| n.水螅；难于根除的祸患 | |
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chimeras
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| n.（由几种动物的各部分构成的）假想的怪兽( chimera的名词复数 )；不可能实现的想法；幻想；妄想 | |
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magisterial
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hymn
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chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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penance
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| n.（赎罪的）惩罪 | |
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expiation
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| n.赎罪，补偿 | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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brawl
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| n.大声争吵，喧嚷；v.吵架，对骂 | |
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interring
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| v.埋，葬( inter的现在分词 ) | |
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ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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calamities
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| n.灾祸，灾难( calamity的名词复数 )；不幸之事 | |
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dismal
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| adj.阴沉的，凄凉的，令人忧郁的，差劲的 | |
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eruptions
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| n.喷发，爆发( eruption的名词复数 ) | |
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pestilence
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| n.瘟疫 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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massacres
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| 大屠杀( massacre的名词复数 )； 惨败 | |
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assassination
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| n.暗杀；暗杀事件 | |
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reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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apprised
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| v.告知，通知( apprise的过去式和过去分词 )；评价 | |
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wagon
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| n.四轮马车，手推车，面包车；无盖运货列车 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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lackeys
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| n.听差( lackey的名词复数 )；男仆（通常穿制服）；卑躬屈膝的人；被待为奴仆的人 | |
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cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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candor
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| n.坦白，率真 | |
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modesty
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| n.谦逊，虚心，端庄，稳重，羞怯，朴素 | |
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larks
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| n.百灵科鸟（尤指云雀）( lark的名词复数 )；一大早就起床；鸡鸣即起；（因太费力而不想干时说）算了v.百灵科鸟（尤指云雀）( lark的第三人称单数 )；一大早就起床；鸡鸣即起；（因太费力而不想干时说）算了 | |
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weaver
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| n.织布工；编织者 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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galley
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| n.（飞机或船上的）厨房单层甲板大帆船；军舰舰长用的大划艇； | |
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galleys
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| n.平底大船，战舰( galley的名词复数 )；（船上或航空器上的）厨房 | |
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alloy
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| n.合金，(金属的)成色 | |
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knavery
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| n.恶行，欺诈的行为 | |
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dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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mortar
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| n.灰浆，灰泥；迫击炮；v.把…用灰浆涂接合 | |
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thatch
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| vt.用茅草覆盖…的顶部；n.茅草(屋) | |
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shingles
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| n.带状疱疹；（布满海边的）小圆石( shingle的名词复数 )；屋顶板；木瓦（板）；墙面板 | |
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lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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oars
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| n.桨，橹( oar的名词复数 )；划手v.划（行）( oar的第三人称单数 ) | |
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cannon
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| n.大炮，火炮；飞机上的机关炮 | |
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obelisks
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| n.方尖石塔，短剑号，疑问记号( obelisk的名词复数 ) | |
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meridians
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| n.子午圈( meridian的名词复数 )；子午线；顶点；（权力，成就等的）全盛时期 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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