To estimate, therefore, the labour of which any given commodity is the result, is far from a simple operation. The items in the calculation are very numerous-as it may seem to some persons, infinitely13 sO; for if, as a part of the labour employed in making bread, we count the labour of the blacksmith who made the plough, why not also (it may be asked) the labour of making the tools used by the blacksmith, and the tools used in making those tools, and so back to the origin of things? But after mounting one or two steps in this ascending14 scale, we come into a region of factions15 too minute for calculation. Suppose, for instance, that the same plough will last, before being worn out, a dozen years. Only one-twelfth of the labour of making the plough must be placed to the account of each year’s harvest. A twelfth part of the labour of making a plough is an appreciable16 quantity. But the same set of tools, perhaps, suffice to the plough-maker for forging a hundred ploughs, which serve during the twelve years of their existence to prepare the soil of as many different farms. A twelve-hundredth part of the labour of making his tools, is as much, therefore, as has been expended in procuring17 one year’s harvest of a single farm: and when this fraction comes to be further apportioned18 among the various sacks of corn and loaves of bread, it is seen at once that such quantities are not worth taking into the account for any practical purpose connected with the commodity. It is true that if the tool-maker had not laboured, the corn and bread never would have been produced; but they will not be sold a tenth part of a farthing dearer in consideration of his labour.
§2. Another of the modes in which labour is indirectly19 or remotely instrumental to the production of a thing, requires particular notice: namely, when it is employed in producing subsistence, to maintain the labourers while they are engaged in the production. This previous employment of labour is an indispensable condition to every productive operation, on any other than the very smallest scale. Except the labour of the hunter and fisher, there is scarcely any kind of labour to which the returns are immediate10. Productive operations require to be continued a certain time, before their fruits are obtained. Unless the labourer, before commencing his work, possesses a store of food, or can obtain access to the stores of some one else, in sufficient quantity to maintain him until the production is completed, he can undertake no labour but such as can be carried on at odd intervals22, concurrently23 with the pursuit of his subsistence. He cannot obtain food itself in any abundance; for every mode of so obtaining it, requires that there be already food in store. Agriculture only brings forth24 food after the lapse25 of months; and though the labours of the agriculturist are not necessarily continuous during the whole period, they must occupy a considerable part of it. Not only is agriculture impossible without food produced in advance, but there must be a very great quantity in advance to enable any considerable community to support itself wholly by agriculture. A country like England or France is only able to carry on the agriculture of the present year, because that of past years has provided, in those countries or somewhere else, sufficient food to support their agricultural population until the next harvest. They are only enabled to produce so many other things besides food, because the food which was in store at the close of the last harvest suffices to maintain not only the agricultural labourers, but a large industrious26 population besides.
The labour employed in producing this stock of subsistence, forms a great and important part of the past labour which has been necessary to enable present labour to be carried on. But there is a difference, requiring particular notice, between this and the other kinds of previous or preparatory labour. The miller, the reaper, the ploughman, the plough-maker, the waggoner and waggon-maker, even the sailor and ship-builder when employed, derive their remuneration from the ultimate product-the bread made from the corn on which they have severally operated, or supplied the instruments for operating. The labour that produced the food which fed all these labourers, is as necessary to the ultimate result, the bread of the present harvest, as any of those other portions of labour; but is not, like them, remunerated from it. That previous labour has received its remuneration from the previous food. In order to raise any product, there are needed labour, tools, and materials, and food to feed the labourers. But the tools and materials are of no use except for obtaining the product, or at least are to be applied27 to no other use, and the labour of their construction can be remunerated only from the product when obtained. The food, on the contrary, is intrinsically useful, and is applied to the direct use of feeding human beings. The labour expended in producing the food, and recompensed by it, needs not be remunerated over again from the produce of the subsequent labour which it has fed. If we suppose that the same body of labourers carried on a manufacture, and grew food to sustain themselves while doing it, they have had for their trouble the food and the manufactured article; but if they also grew the material and made the tools, they have had nothing for that trouble but the manufactured article alone.
The claim to remuneration founded on the possession of food, available for the maintenance of labourers, is of another kind; remuneration for abstinence, not for labour. If a person has a store of food, he has it in his power to consume it himself in idleness, or in feeding others to attend on him, or to fight for him, or to sing or dance for him. If, instead of these things, he gives it to productive labourers to support them during their work, he can, and naturally will, claim a remuneration from the produce. He will not be content with simple repayment28; if he receives merely that, he is only in the same situation as at first, and has derived29 no advantage from delaying to apply his savings30 to his own benefit or pleasure. He will look for some equivalent for this forbearance: he will expect his advance of food to come back to him with an increase, called in the language of business, a profit; and the hope of this profit will generally have been a part of the inducement which made him accumulate a stock, by economizing31 in his own consumption; or, at any rate, which made him forego the application of it, when accumulated, to his personal ease or satisfaction. The food also which maintained other workmen while producing the tools or materials, must have been provided in advance by some one, and he, too, must have his profit from the ultimate product; but there is this difference, that here the ultimate product has to supply not only the profit, but also the remuneration of the labour. The tool-maker (say, for instance, the ploughmaker) does not indeed usually wait for his payment until the harvest is reaped; the farmer advances it to him, and steps into his place by becoming the owner of the plough. Nevertheless, it is from the harvest that the payment is to come; since the farmer would not undertake this outlay32 unless he expected that the harvest would repay him, and with a profit too on this fresh advance; that is, unless the harvest would yield, besides the remuneration of the farm labourers (and a profit for advancing it), a sufficient residue33 to remunerate the plough-maker’s labourers, give the plough-maker a profit, and a profit to the farmer on both.
§3. From these considerations it appears, that in an enumeration34 and classification of the kinds of industry which are intended for the indirect or remote furtherance of other productive labour, we need not include the labour of producing subsistence or other necessaries of life to be consumed by productive labourers; for the main end and purpose of this labour is the subsistence itself; and though the possession of a store of it enables other work to be done, this is but an incidental consequence. The remaining modes in which labour is indirectly instrumental to production, may be arranged under five heads.
First: Labour employed in producing materials, on which industry is to be afterwards employed. This is, in many cases, a labour of mere appropriation35; extractive industry, as it has been aptly named by M. Dunoyer . The labour of the miner, for example, consists of operations for digging out of the earth substances convertible36 by industry into various articles fitted for human use. Extractive industry, however, is not confined to the extraction of materials. Coal, for instance, is employed, not only in the process of industry, but in directly warming human beings. When so used, it is not a material of production, but is itself the ultimate product. So, also, in the case of a mine of precious stones. These are to some small extent employed in the productive arts, as diamonds by the glass-cutter, emery and corundum for polishing, but their principal destination, that of ornament37, is a direct use; though they commonly require, before being so used, some process of manufacture, which may perhaps warrant our regarding them as materials. Metallic38 ores of all sorts are materials merely.
Under the head, production of materials, we must include the industry of the wood-cutter, when employed in cutting and preparing timber for building, or wood for the purposes of the carpenter’s or any other art. In the forests of America, Norway, Germany, the Pyrenees and Alps, this sort of labour is largely employed on trees of spontaneous growth. In other cases, we must add to the labour of the wood-cutter that of the planter and cultivator.
Under the same head are also comprised the labours of the agriculturist in growing flax, hemp39, cotton, feeding silkworms, rising food for cattle, producing bark, dye-stuffs, some oleaginous plants, and many other things only useful because required in other departments of industry. So, too, the labour of the hunter, as far as his object is furs or feathers; of the shepherd and the cattle-breeder, in respect of wool, hides, horn, bristles40, horse-hair, and the like. The things used as materials in some process or other of manufacture are of a most miscellaneous character, drawn41 from almost every quarter of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. And besides this, the finished products of many branches of industry are the materials of others. The thread produced by the spinner is applied to hardly any use except as material for the weaver42. Even the product of the loom43 is chiefly used as material for the fabricators of articles of dress or furniture, or of further instruments of productive industry, as in the case of the sailmaker. The currier and tanner find their whole occupation in converting raw material into what may be termed prepared material. In strictness of speech, almost all food, as it comes from the hands of the agriculturist, is nothing more than material for the occupation of the baker or the cook.
§4. The second kind of indirect labour is that employed in making tools or implements44 for the assistance of labour. I use these terms in their most comprehensive sense, embracing all permanent instruments or helps to production, from a flint and steel for striking a light, to a steam ship, or the most complex apparatus45 of manufacturing machinery46. There may be some hesitation47 where to draw the line between implements and materials; and some things used in production (such as fuel) would scarcely in common language be called by either name, popular phraseology being shaped out by a different class of necessities from those of scientific exposition. To avoid a multiplication48 of classes and denominations49 answering to distinctions of no scientific importance, political economists50 generally include all things which are used as immediate means of production (the means which are not immediate will be considered presently) either in the class of implements or in that of materials. Perhaps the line is most usually and most conveniently drawn, by considering as a material every instrument of production which can only be used once, being destroyed (at least as an instrument for the purpose in hand) by a single employment. Thus fuel, once burnt, cannot be again used as fuel; what can be so used is only any portion which has remained unburnt the first time. And not only it cannot be used without being consumed, but it is only useful by being consumed; for if no part of the fuel were destroyed, no heat would be generated. A fleece, again, is destroyed as a fleece by being spun51 into thread; and the thread cannot be used as thread when woven into cloth. But an axe52 is not destroyed as an axe by cutting down a tree: it may be used afterwards to cut down a hundred or a thousand more; and though deteriorated53 in some small degree by each use, it does not do its work by being deteriorated, as the coal and the fleece do theirs by being destroyed; on the contrary, it is the better instrument the better it resists deterioration54. There are some things, rightly classed as materials, which may be used as such a second and a third time, but not while the product to which they at first contributed remains55 in existence. The iron which formed a tank or a set of pipes may be melted to form a plough or a steam-engine; the stones with which a house was built may be used after it is pulled down, to build another. But this cannot be done while the original product subsists56; their function as materials is suspended, until the exhaustion57 of the first use. Not so with the things classed as implements; they may be used repeatedly for fresh work, until the time, sometimes very distant, at which they are worn out, while the work already done by them may subsist20 unimpaired, and when it perishes, does so by its own laws, or by casualties of its own.1
The only practical difference of much importance arising from the distinction between materials and implements, is one which has attracted our attention in another case. Since materials are destroyed as such by being once used, the whole of the labour required for their production, as well as the abstinence of the person who supplied the means for carrying it on, must be remunerated from the fruits of that single use. Implements, on the contrary, being susceptible58 of repeated employment, the whole of the products which they are instrumental in bringing into existence are a fund which can be drawn upon to remunerate the labour of their construction, and the abstinence of those by whose accumulations that labour was supported. It is enough if each product contributes a fraction, commonly an insignificant59 one, towards the remuneration of that labour and abstinence, or towards indemnifying the immediate producer for advancing that remuneration to the person who produced the tools.
§5. Thirdly: Besides materials for industry to employ itself on, and implements to aid it, provision must be made to prevent its operations from being disturbed, and its products injured, either by the destroying agencies of nature, or by the violence or rapacity60 of men. This gives rise to another mode in which labour not employed directly about the product itself, is instrumental to its production; namely, when employed for the protection of industry. Such is the object of all buildings for industrial purposes; all manufactories, warehouses61, docks, granaries, barns, farm-buildings devoted62 to cattle, or to the operations of agricultural labour. I exclude those in which the labourers live, or which are destined for their personal accommodation: these, like their food, supply actual wants, and must be counted in the remuneration of their labour. There are many modes in which labour is still more directly applied to the protection of productive operations. The herdsman has little other occupation than to protect the cattle from harm: the positive agencies concerned in the realization63 of the product, go on nearly of themselves. I have already mentioned the labour of the hedger and ditcher, of the builder of walls or dykes64. To these must be added that of the soldier, the policeman, and the judge. These functionaries65 are not indeed employed exclusively in the protection of industry, nor does their payment constitute, to the individual producer, a part of the expenses of production. But they are paid from the taxes, which are derived from the produce of industry; and in any tolerably governed country they render to its operations a service far more than equivalent to the cost. To society at large they are therefore part of the expenses of production; and if the returns to production were not sufficient to maintain these labourers in addition to all the others required, production, at least in that form and manner, could not take place. Besides, if the protection which the government affords to the operations of industry were not afforded, the producers would be under a necessity of either withdrawing a large share of their time and labour from production, to employ it in defence, or of engaging armed men to defend them; all which labour, in that case, must be directly remunerated from the produce; and things which could not pay for this additional labour, would not be produced. Under the present arrangements, the product pays its quota66 towards the same protection, and notwithstanding the waste and prodigality67 incident to government expenditure68, obtains it of better quality at a much smaller cost.
§6. Fourthly: There is a very great amount of labour employed, not in bringing the product into existence, but in rendering69 it, when in existence, accessible to those for whose use it is intended. Many important classes of labourers find their sole employment in some function of this kind. There is first the whole class of carriers, by land or water. muleteers, waggoners, bargemen, sailors, wharfmen, coalheavers, porters, railway establishments, and the like. Next, there are the constructors of all the implements of transport; ships, barges70, carts, locomotives, &c., to which must be added roads, canals, and railways. Roads are sometimes made by the government, and opened gratuitously72 to the public; but the labour of making them is not the less paid for from the produce. Each producer, in paying his quota of the taxes levied73 generally for the construction of roads, pays for the use of those which conduce to his convenience; and if made with any tolerable judgment74, they increase the returns to his industry by far more than an equivalent amount.
Another numerous class of labourers employed in rendering the things produced accessible to their intended consumers, is the class of dealers76 and traders, or, as they may be termed, distributors. There would be a great waste of time and trouble, and an inconvenience often amounting to impracticability, if consumers could only obtain the articles they want by treating directly with the producers. Both producers and consumers are too much scattered77, and the latter often at too great a distance from the former. To diminish this loss of time and labour, the contrivance of fairs and markets was early had recourse to, where consumers and producers might periodically meet, without any intermediate agency; and this plan answers tolerably well for many articles, especially agricultural produce, agriculturists having at some seasons a certain quantity of spare time on their hands. But even in this case, attendance is often very troublesome and inconvenient78 to buyers who have other occupations, and do not live in the immediate vicinity; while, for all articles the production of which requires continuous attention from the producers, these periodical markets must be held at such considerable intervals, and the wants of the consumers must either be provided for so long beforehand, or must remain so long unsupplied, that even before the resources of society admitted of the establishment of shops, the supply of these wants fell universally into the hands of itinerant79 dealers: the pedlar, who might appear once a month, being preferred to the fair, which only returned once or twice a year. In country districts, remote from towns or large villages, the industry of the pedlar is not yet wholly superseded80. But a dealer75 who has a fixed81 abode82 and fixed customers is so much more to be depended on, that consumers prefer resorting to him if he is conveniently accessible; and dealers therefore find their advantage in establishing themselves in every locality where there are sufficient consumers near at hand to afford them a remuneration.
In many cases the producers and dealers are the same persons, at least as to the ownership of the funds and the control of the operations. The tailor, the shoemaker, the baker, and many other tradesmen, are the producers of the articles they deal in, so far as regards the last stage in the production. This union, however, of the functions of manufacturer and retailer84 is only expedient85 when the article can advantageously be made at or near the place convenient for retailing86 it, and is, besides, manufactured and sold in small parcels. When things have to be brought from a distance, the same person cannot effectually superintend both the making and the retailing of them; when they are best and most cheaply made on a large scale, a single manufactory requires so many local channels to carry off its supply, that the retailing is most conveniently delegated to other agency; and even shoes and coats, when they are to be furnished in large quantities at once, as for the supply of a regiment87 or of a workhouse, are usually obtained not directly from the producers, but from intermediate dealers, who make it their business to ascertain88 from what producers they can be obtained best and cheapest. Even when things are destined to be at last sold by retail83, convenience soon creates a class of wholesale89 dealers. When products and transactions have multiplied beyond a certain point; when one manufactory supplies many shops, and one shop has often to obtain goods from many different manufactories, the loss of time and trouble both to the manufacturers and to the retailers90 by treating directly with one another makes it more convenient to them to treat with a smaller number of great dealers or merchants, who only buy to sell again, collecting goods from the various producers and distributing them to the retailers, to be by them further distributed among the consumers. Of these various elements is composed the Distributing Class, whose agency is supplementary91 to that of the Producing Class: and the produce so distributed, or its price, is the source from which the distributors are remunerated for their exertions93, and for the abstinence which enabled them to advance the funds needful for the business of distribution.
§7. We have now completed the enumeration of the modes in which labour employed on external nature is subservient94 to production. But there is yet another mode of employing labour, which conduces equally, though still more remotely, to that end: this is, labour of which the subject is human beings. Every human being has been brought up from infancy95 at the expense of much labour to some person or persons, and if this labour, or part of it, had not been bestowed96, the child would never have attained97 the age and strength which enable him to become a labourer in his turn. To the community at large, the labour and expense of rearing its infant population form a part of the outlay which is a condition of production, and which is to be replaced with increase from the future produce of their labour. By the individuals, this labour and expense are usually incurred98 from other motives71 than to obtain such ultimate return, and, for most purposes of political economy, need not be taken into account as expenses of production. But the technical or industrial education of the community; the labour employed in learning and in teaching the arts of production, in acquiring and communicating skill in those arts; this labour is really, and in general solely99, undergone for the sake of the greater or more valuable produce thereby attained, and in order that a remuneration, equivalent or more than equivalent, may be reaped by the learner, besides an adequate remuneration for the labour of the teacher, when a teacher has been employed.
As the labour which confers productive powers, whether of hand or of head, may be looked upon as part of the labour by which society accomplishes its productive operations, or in other words, as part of what the produce costs to society, so too may the labour employed in keeping up productive powers; in preventing them from being destroyed or weakened by accident or disease. The labour of a physician or surgeon, when made use of by persons engaged in industry, must be regarded in the economy of society as a sacrifice incurred, to preserve from perishing by death or infirmity that portion of the productive resources of society which is fixed in the lives and bodily or mental powers of its productive members. To the individuals, indeed, this forms but a part, sometimes an imperceptible part, of the motives that induce them to submit to medical treatment: it is not principally from economical motives that persons have a limb amputated, or endeavour to be cured of a fever, though when they do so, there is generally sufficient inducement for it even on that score alone. This is, therefore, one of the cases of labour and outlay which, though conducive100 to production, yet not being incurred for that end, or for the sake of the returns arising from it, are out of the sphere of most of the general propositions which political economy has occasion to assert respecting productive labour: though, when society and not the individuals are considered, this labour and outlay must be regarded as part of the advance by which society effects its productive operations, and for which it is indemnified by the produce.
§8. Another kind of labour, usually classed as mental, but conducing to the ultimate product as directly, though not so immediately, as manual labour itself, is the labour of the inventors of industrial processes. I say, usually classed as mental, because in reality it is not exclusively so. All human exertion92 is compounded of some mental and some bodily elements. The stupidest hodman, who repeats from day to day the mechanical act of climbing a ladder, performs a function partly intellectual; so much so, indeed, that the most intelligent dog or elephant could not, probably, be taught to do it. The dullest human being, instructed beforehand, is capable of turning a mill; but a horse cannot turn it without somebody to drive and watch him. On the other hand, there is some bodily ingredient in the labour most purely101 mental, when it generates any external result. Newton could not have produced the Principia without the bodily exertion either of penmanship or of dictation; and he must have drawn many diagrams, and written out many calculations and demonstrations102, while he was preparing it in his mind. Inventors, besides the labour of their brains, generally go through much labour with their hands, in the models which they construct and the experiments they have to make before their idea can realize itself successfully in act. Whether mental, however, or bodily, their labour is a part of that by which the production is brought about. The labour of Watt103 in contriving104 the steam-engine was as essential a part of production as that of the mechanics who build or the engineers who work the instrument; and was undergone, no less than theirs, in the prospect105 of a remuneration from the produce. The labour of invention is often estimated and paid on the very same plan as that of execution. Many manufacturers of ornamental106 goods have inventors in their employment, who receive wages or salaries for designing patterns, exactly as others do for copying them. All this is strictly107 part of the labour of production; as the labour of the author of a book is equally a part of its production with that of the printer and binder108.
In a national, or universal point of view, the labour of the savant, or speculative109 thinker, is as much a part of production in the very narrowest sense, as that of the inventor of a practical art; many such inventions having been the direct consequences of theoretic discoveries, and every extension of knowledge of the powers of nature being fruitful of applications to the purposes of outward life. The electro-magnetic telegraph was the wonderful and most unexpected consequence of the experiments of OErsted and the mathematical investigations110 of Ampère: and the modern art of navigation is an unforeseen emanation from the purely speculative and apparently111 merely curious enquiry, by the mathematicians112 of Alexandria, into the properties of three curves formed by the intersection113 of a plane surface and a cone114. No limit can be set to the importance, even in a purely productive and material point of view, of mere thought. Inasmuch, however, as these material fruits, though the result, are seldom the direct purpose of the pursuits of savants, nor is their remuneration in general derived from the increased production which may be caused incidentally, and mostly after a long interval21, by their discoveries; this ultimate influence does not, for most of the purposes of political economy, require to be taken into consideration; are generally classed as the producers only of books, or other useable or saleable articles, which directly emanate115 from them. But when (as in political economy one should always be prepared to do) we shift our point of view, and consider not individual acts, and the motives by which they are determined116, hut national and universal results, intellectual speculation117 must be looked upon as a most influential118 part of the productive labour of society, and the portion of its resources employed in carrying on and in remunerating such labour, as a highly productive part of its expenditure.
§9. In the foregoing survey of the modes of employing labour in furtherance of production, I have made little use of the popular distinction of industry into agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial. For, in truth, this division fulfils very badly the purposes of a classification. Many great branches of productive industry find no place in it, or not without much straining; for example (not to speak of hunters or fishers) the miner, the road-maker, and the sailor. The limit, too, between agricultural and manufacturing industry cannot be precisely119 drawn. The miller, for instance, and the baker-are they to be reckoned among agriculturists, or among manufacturers? Their occupation is in its nature manufacturing; the food has finally parted company with the soil before it is handed over to them: this, however, might be said with equal truth of the thresher, the winnower120, the makers121 of butter and cheese; operations always counted as agricultural, probably because it is the custom for them to be performed by persons resident on the farm, and under the same superintendence as tillage. For many purposes all these persons, the miller and baker inclusive, must be placed in the same class with ploughmen and reapers122. They are all concerned in producing food, and depend for their remuneration on the food produced; when the one class abounds123 and flourishes, the others do so too; they form collectively the “agricultural interest;” they render but one service to the community by their united labours, and are paid from one common source. Even the tillers of the soil, again, when the produce is not food, but the materials of what are commonly termed manufactures, belong in many respects to the same division in the economy of society as manufacturers. The cotton-planter of Carolina, and the wool-grower of Australia, have more interests in common with the spinner and weaver than with the corngrower. But, on the other hand, the industry which operates immediately upon the soil has, as we shall see hereafter, some properties on which many important consequences depend, and which distinguish it from all the subsequent stages of production, whether carried on by the same person or not; from the industry of the thresher and winnower, as much as from that of the cotton-spinner. When I speak, therefore, of agricultural labour, I shall generally mean this, and this exclusively, unless the contrary is either stated or implied in the context. The term manufacturing is too vague to be of much use when precision is required, and when I employ it, I wish to be understood as intending to speak popularly rather than scientifically.
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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baker
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| n.面包师 | |
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miller
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| n.磨坊主 | |
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aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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reaper
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| n.收割者，收割机 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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ascending
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| adj.上升的，向上的 | |
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factions
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| 组织中的小派别，派系( faction的名词复数 ) | |
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appreciable
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| adj.明显的，可见的，可估量的，可觉察的 | |
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procuring
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apportioned
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indirectly
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| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
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subsist
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| vi.生存，存在，供养 | |
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interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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23
concurrently
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| adv.同时地 | |
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24
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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25
lapse
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| n.过失，流逝，失效，抛弃信仰，间隔；vi.堕落，停止，失效，流逝；vt.使失效 | |
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26
industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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27
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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28
repayment
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| n.偿还，偿还款；报酬 | |
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29
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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30
savings
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| n.存款，储蓄 | |
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31
economizing
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| v.节省，减少开支( economize的现在分词 ) | |
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32
outlay
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| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
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33
residue
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| n.残余，剩余，残渣 | |
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34
enumeration
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| n.计数，列举；细目；详表；点查 | |
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35
appropriation
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| n.拨款，批准支出 | |
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36
convertible
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| adj.可改变的，可交换，同意义的；n.有活动摺篷的汽车 | |
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37
ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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38
metallic
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| adj.金属的；金属制的；含金属的；产金属的；像金属的 | |
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39
hemp
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| n.大麻；纤维 | |
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40
bristles
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| 短而硬的毛发，刷子毛( bristle的名词复数 ) | |
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41
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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42
weaver
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| n.织布工；编织者 | |
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43
loom
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| n.织布机，织机；v.隐现，(危险、忧虑等)迫近 | |
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44
implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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45
apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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46
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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47
hesitation
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| n.犹豫，踌躇 | |
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48
multiplication
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| n.增加，增多，倍增；增殖，繁殖；乘法 | |
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49
denominations
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| n.宗派( denomination的名词复数 )；教派；面额；名称 | |
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50
economists
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| n.经济学家，经济专家( economist的名词复数 ) | |
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51
spun
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| v.纺，杜撰，急转身 | |
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52
axe
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| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
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53
deteriorated
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| 恶化，变坏( deteriorate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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54
deterioration
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| n.退化；恶化；变坏 | |
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55
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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56
subsists
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| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的第三人称单数 ) | |
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57
exhaustion
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| n.耗尽枯竭，疲惫，筋疲力尽，竭尽，详尽无遗的论述 | |
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58
susceptible
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| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
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59
insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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60
rapacity
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| n.贪婪，贪心，劫掠的欲望 | |
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61
warehouses
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| 仓库，货栈( warehouse的名词复数 ) | |
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62
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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63
realization
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| n.实现；认识到，深刻了解 | |
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64
dykes
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| abbr.diagonal wire cutters 斜线切割机n.堤( dyke的名词复数 )；坝；堰；沟 | |
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65
functionaries
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| n.公职人员，官员( functionary的名词复数 ) | |
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66
quota
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| n.（生产、进出口等的）配额，（移民的）限额 | |
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67
prodigality
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| n.浪费，挥霍 | |
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68
expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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69
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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70
barges
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| 驳船( barge的名词复数 ) | |
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71
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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72
gratuitously
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| 平白 | |
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73
levied
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| 征（兵）( levy的过去式和过去分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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74
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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75
dealer
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| n.商人，贩子 | |
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76
dealers
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| n.商人( dealer的名词复数 )；贩毒者；毒品贩子；发牌者 | |
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77
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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78
inconvenient
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| adj.不方便的，令人感到麻烦的 | |
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79
itinerant
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| adj.巡回的；流动的 | |
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80
superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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81
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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82
abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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83
retail
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| v./n.零售；adv.以零售价格 | |
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84
retailer
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| n.零售商(人) | |
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85
expedient
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| adj.有用的，有利的；n.紧急的办法，权宜之计 | |
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86
retailing
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| n.零售业v.零售(retail的现在分词) | |
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87
regiment
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| n.团，多数，管理；v.组织，编成团，统制 | |
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88
ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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89
wholesale
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| n.批发；adv.以批发方式；vt.批发，成批出售 | |
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90
retailers
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| 零售商，零售店( retailer的名词复数 ) | |
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91
supplementary
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| adj.补充的，附加的 | |
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92
exertion
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| n.尽力，努力 | |
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93
exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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94
subservient
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| adj.卑屈的，阿谀的 | |
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95
infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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96
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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97
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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98
incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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99
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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100
conducive
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| adj.有益的，有助的 | |
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101
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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102
demonstrations
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| 证明( demonstration的名词复数 )； 表明； 表达； 游行示威 | |
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103
watt
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| n.瓦，瓦特 | |
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104
contriving
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| （不顾困难地）促成某事( contrive的现在分词 )； 巧妙地策划，精巧地制造（如机器）； 设法做到 | |
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105
prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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106
ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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107
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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108
binder
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| n.包扎物，包扎工具；[法]临时契约；粘合剂；装订工 | |
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109
speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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110
investigations
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| （正式的）调查( investigation的名词复数 )； 侦查； 科学研究； 学术研究 | |
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111
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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112
mathematicians
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| 数学家( mathematician的名词复数 ) | |
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113
intersection
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| n.交集，十字路口，交叉点；[计算机] 交集 | |
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114
cone
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| n.圆锥体，圆锥形东西，球果 | |
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115
emanate
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| v.发自，来自，出自 | |
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116
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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117
speculation
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| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
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118
influential
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| adj.有影响的，有权势的 | |
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119
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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120
winnower
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| n.扬谷（或场）者，扬谷器，风车；扇车；簸谷机 | |
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121
makers
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| n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式） | |
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122
reapers
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| n.收割者，收获者( reaper的名词复数 )；收割机 | |
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123
abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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