Of the capital engaged in the production of any commodity, there is a part which, after being once used, exists no longer as capital; is no longer capable of rendering3 service to production, or at least not the same service, nor to the same sort of production. Such, for example, is the portion of capital which consists of materials. The tallow and alkali of which soap is made, once used in the manufacture, are destroyed as alkali and tallow; and cannot be employed any further in the soap manufacture, though in their altered condition, as soap, they are capable of being used as a material or an instrument in other branches of manufacture. In the same division must be placed the portion of capital which is paid as the wages, or consumed as the subsistence, of labourers. The part of the capital of a cottonspinner which he pays away to his work-people, once so paid, exists no longer as his capital, or as a cotton-spinner’s capital: such portion of it as the workmen consume, no longer exists as capital at all: even if they save any part, it may now be more properly regarded as a fresh capital, the result of a second act of accumulation. Capital which in this manner fulfils the whole of its office in the production in which it is engaged, by a single use, is called Circulating Capital. The term, which is not very appropriate, is derived4 from the circumstance, that this portion of capital requires to be constantly renewed by the sale of the finished product, and when renewed is perpetually parted with in buying materials and paying wages; so that it does its work, not by being kept, but by changing hands.
Another large portion of capital, however, consists in instruments of production, of a more or less permanent character; which produce their effect not by being parted with, but by being kept; and the efficacy of which is not exhausted5 by a single use. To this class belong buildings, machinery6, and all or most things known by the name of implements7 or tools. The durability8 of some of these is considerable, and their function as productive instruments is prolonged through many repetitions of the productive operation. In this class must likewise be included capital sunk (as the expression is) in permanent improvements of land. So also the capital expended9 once for all, in the commencement of an undertaking10, to prepare the way for subsequent operations: the expense of opening a mine, for example: of cutting canals, of making roads or docks. Other examples might be added, but these are sufficient. Capital which exists in any of these durable11 shapes, and the return to which is spread over a period of corresponding duration, is called Fixed12 Capital.
Of fixed capital, some kinds require to be occasionally or periodically renewed. Such are all implements and buildings: they require, at intervals14, partial renewal15 by means of repairs, and are at last entirely16 worn out, and cannot be of any further service as buildings and implements, but fall back into the class of materials. In other cases, the capital does not, unless as a consequence of some unusual accident, require entire renewal: but there is always some outlay17 needed, either regularly or at least occasionally, to keep it up. A dock or a canal, once made, does not require, like a machine, to be made again, unless purposely destroyed, or unless an earthquake or some similar catastrophe18 has filled it up: but regular and frequent outlays19 are necessary to keep it in repair. The cost of opening a mine needs not be incurred20 a second time; but unless some one goes to the expense of keeping the mine clear of water, it is soon rendered useless. The most permanent of all kinds of fixed capital is that employed in giving increased productiveness to a natural agent, such as land. The draining of marshy21 or inundated22 tracts23 like the Bedford Level, the reclaiming24 of land from the sea, or its protection by embankments, are improvements calculated for perpetuity; but drains and dykes25 require frequent repairs. The same character of perpetuity belongs to the improvement of land by subsoil draining, which adds so much to the productiveness of the clay soils; or by permanent manures, that is, by the addition to the soil, not of the substances which enter into the composition of vegetables, and which are therefore consumed by vegetation, but of those which merely alter the relation of the soil to air and water; as sand and lime on the heavy soils, clay and marl on the light. Even such works, however, require some, though it may be very little, occasional outlay to maintain their full effect.
These improvements, however, by the very fact of their deserving that title, produce an increase of return, which, after defraying all expenditure27 necessary for keeping them up, still leaves a surplus. This surplus forms the return to the capital sunk in the first instance, and that return does not, as in the case of machinery, terminate by the wearing out of the machine, but continues for ever. The land, thus increased in productiveness, bears a value in the market, proportional to the increase: and hence it is usual to consider the capital which was invested, or sunk, in making the improvement, as still existing in the increased value of the land. There must be no mistake, however. The capital, like all other capital, has been consumed. It was consumed in maintaining the labourers who executed the improvement, and in the wear and tear of the tools by which they were assisted. But it was consumed productively, and has left a permanent result in the improved productiveness of an appropriated natural agent, the land. We may call the increased produce the joint28 result of the land and of a capital fixed in the land. But as the capital, having in reality been consumed, cannot be withdrawn29, its productiveness is thenceforth indissolubly blended with that arising from the original qualities of the soil; and the remuneration for the use of it thenceforth depends, not upon the laws which govern the returns to labour and capital, but upon those which govern the recompense for natural agents. What these are, we shall see hereafter.1
§2. There is a great difference between the effects of circulating and those of fixed capital, on the amount of the gross produce of the country. Circulating capital being destroyed as such, or at any rate finally lost to the owner, by a single use; and the product resulting from that one use being the only source from which the owner can replace the capital, or obtain any remuneration for its productive employment; the product must of course be sufficient for those purposes, or in other words, the result of a single use must be a reproduction equal to the whole amount of the circulating capital used, and a profit besides. This, however, is by no means necessary in the case of fixed capital. Since machinery, for example, is not wholly consumed by one use, it is not necessary that it should be wholly replaced from the product of that use. The machine answers the purpose of its owner if it brings in, during each interval13 of time, enough to cover the expense of repairs, and the deterioration32 in value which the machine has sustained during the same time, with a surplus sufficient to yield the ordinary profit on the entire value of the machine.
From this it follows that all increase of fixed capital, when taking place at the expense of circulating, must be, at least temporarily, prejudicial to the interests of the labourers. This is true, not of machinery alone, but of all improvements by which capital is sunk; that is, rendered permanently33 incapable34 of being applied35 to the maintenance and remuneration of labour. Suppose that a person farms his own land, with a capital of two thousand quarters of corn, employed in maintaining labourers during one year (for simplicity36 we omit the consideration of seed and tools), whose labour produces him annually37 two thousand four hundred quarters, being a profit of twenty per cent. This profit we shall suppose that he annually consumes, carrying on his operations from year to year on the original capital of two thousand quarters. Let us now suppose that by the expenditure of half his capital he effects a permanent improvement of his land, which is executed by half his labourers, and occupies them for a year, after which he will only require, for the effectual cultivation38 of his land, half as many labourers as before. The remainder of his capital he employs as usual. In the first year there is no difference in the condition of the labourers, except that part of them have received the same pay for an operation on the land, which they previously39 obtained for ploughing, sowing, and reaping. At the end of the year, however, the improver has not, as before, a capital of two thousand quarters of corn. Only one thousand quarters of his capital have been reproduced in the usual way: he has now only those thousand quarters and his improvement. He will employ, in the next and in each following year, only half the number of labourers, and will divide among them only half the former quantity of subsistence. The loss will soon be made up to them if the improved land, with the diminished quantity of labour, produces two thousand four hundred quarters as before, because so enormous an accession of gain will probably induce the improver to save a part, add it to his capital, and become a larger employer of labour. But it is conceivable that this may not be the case; for (supposing, as we may do, that the improvement will last indefinitely, without any outlay worth mentioning to keep it up) the improver will have gained largely by his improvement if the land now yields, not two thousand four hundred, but one thousand five hundred quarters; since this will replace the one thousand quarters forming his present circulating capital, with a profit of twenty-five per cent (instead of twenty as before) on the whole capital, fixed and circulating together. The improvement, therefore, may be a very profitable one to him, and yet very injurious to the labourers.
The supposition, in the terms in which it has been stated, is purely40 ideal; or at most applicable only to such a case as that of the conversion41 of arable42 land into pasture, which, though formerly43 a frequent practice, is regarded by modern agriculturists as the reverse of an improvement.2 But this does not affect the substance of the argument. Suppose that the improvement does not operate in the manner supposed — does not enable a part of the labour previously employed on the land to be dispensed44 with — but only enables the same labour to raise a greater produce. Suppose, too, that the greater produce, which by means of the improvement can be raised from the soil with the same labour, is all wanted, and will find purchasers. The improver will in that case require the same number of labourers as before, at the same wages. But where will he find the means of paying them? He has no longer his original capital of two thousand quarters disposable for the purpose. One thousand of them are lost and gone — consumed in making the improvement. If he is to employ as many labourers as before, and pay them as highly, he must borrow, or obtain from some other source, a thousand quarters to supply the deficit45. But these thousand quarters already maintained, or were destined46 to maintain, an equivalent quantity of labour. They are not a fresh creation; their destination is only changed from one productive employment to another; and though the agriculturist has made up the deficiency in his own circulating capital, the breach47 in the circulating capital of the community remains48 unrepaired.
The argument relied on by most of those who contend that machinery can never be injurious to the labouring class, is, that by cheapening production it creates such an increased demand for the commodity, as enables, ere long, a greater number of persons than ever to find employment in producing it. This argument does not seem to me to have the weight commonly ascribed to it. The fact, though too broadly stated, is, no doubt, often true. The copyists who were thrown out of employment by the invention of printing, were doubtless soon outnumbered by the compositors and pressmen who took their place; and the number of labouring persons now occupied in the cotton manufacture is many times greater than were so occupied previously to the inventions of Hargreaves and Arkwright, which shows that besides the enormous fixed capital now embarked49 in the manufacture, it also employs a far larger circulating capital than at any former time. But if this capital was drawn30 from other employments; if the funds which took the place of the capital sunk in costly50 machinery, were supplied not by any additional saving consequent on the improvements, but by drafts on the general capital of the community. what better were the labouring classes for the mere26 transfer? In what manner was the loss they sustained by the conversion of circulating into fixed capital made up to them by a mere shifting of part of the remainder of the circulating capital from its old employments to a new one?
All attempts to make out that the labouring classes as a collective body cannot suffer temporarily by the introduction of machinery, or by the sinking of capital in permanent improvements, are, I conceive, necessarily fallacious. That they would suffer in the particular department of industry to which the change applies, is generally admitted, and obvious to common sense; but it is often said, that though employment is withdrawn from labour in one department, an exactly equivalent employment is opened for it in others, because what the consumers save in the increased cheapness of one particular article enables them to augment51 their consumption of others, thereby52 increasing the demand for other kinds of labour. This is plausible53, but, as was shown in the last chapter, involves a fallacy; demand for commodities being a totally different thing from demand for labour. It is true, the consumers have now additional means of buying other things; but this will not create the other things, unless there is capital to produce them, and the improvement has not set at liberty any capital, if even it has not absorbed some from other employments. The supposed increase of production and of employment for labour in other departments therefore will not take place; and the increased demand for commodities by some consumers, will be balanced by a cessation of demand on the part of others, namely, the labourers who were superseded54 by the improvement, and who will now be maintained, if at all, by sharing, either in the way of competition or of charity, in what was previously consumed by other people.
§3. Nevertheless, I do not believe that as things are actually transacted55, improvements in production are often, if ever, injurious, even temporarily, to the labouring classes in the aggregate56. They would be so if they took place suddenly to a great amount, because much of the capital sunk must necessarily in that case be provided from funds already employed as circulating capital. But improvements are always introduced very gradually, and are seldom or never made by withdrawing circulating capital from actual production, but are made by the employment of the annual increase. There are few if any examples of a great increase of fixed capital, at a time and place where circulating capital was not rapidly increasing likewise. It is not in poor or backward countries that great and costly improvements in production are made. To sink capital in land for a permanent return — to introduce expensive machinery — are acts involving immediate57 sacrifice for distant objects; and indicate, in the first place, tolerably complete security of property; in the second, considerable activity of industrial enterprise; and in the third, a high standard of what has been called the “effective desire of accumulation:” which three things are the elements of a society rapidly progressive in its amount of capital. Although, therefore, the labouring classes must suffer, not only if the increase of fixed capital takes place at the expense of circulating, but even if it is so large and rapid as to retard58 that ordinary increase to which the growth of population has habitually59 adapted itself; yet, in point of fact, this is very unlikely to happen, since there is probably no country whose fixed capital increases in a ratio more than proportional to its circulating. If the whole of the railways which, during the speculative60 madness of 1845, obtained the sanction of Parliament, had been constructed in the times fixed for the completion of each, this improbable contingency61 would, most likely, have been realized; but this very case has afforded a striking example of the difficulties which oppose the diversion into new channels, of any considerable portion of the capital that supplies the old: difficulties generally much more than sufficient to prevent enterprises that involve the sinking of capital, from extending themselves with such rapidity as to impair62 the sources of the existing employment for labour.
To these considerations must be added, that even if improvements did for a time decrease the aggregate produce and the circulating capital of the community, they would not the less tend in the long run to augment both. They increase the return to capital; and of this increase the benefit must necessarily accrue63 either to the capitalist in greater profits, or to the customer in diminished prices; affording, in either case, an augmented64 fund from which accumulation may be made, while enlarged profits also hold out an increased inducement to accumulation. In the case we before selected, in which the immediate result of the improvement was to diminish the gross produce from two thousand four hundred quarters to one thousand five hundred, yet the profit of the capitalist being now five hundred quarters instead of four hundred, the extra one hundred quarters, if regularly saved, would in a few years replace the one thousand quarters subtracted from his circulating capital. Now the extension of business which almost certainly follows in any department in which an improvement has been made, affords a strong inducement to those engaged in it to add to their capital; and hence, at the slow pace at which improvements are usually introduced, a great part of the capital which the improvement ultimately absorbs, is drawn from the increased profits and increased savings65 which it has itself called forth31.
This tendency of improvements in production to cause increased accumulation, and thereby ultimately to increase the gross produce, even if temporarily diminishing it, will assume a still more decided66 character if it, should appear that there are assignable limits both to the accumulation of capital, and to the increase of production from the land, which limits once attained67, all further increase of produce must stop; but that improvements in production, whatever may be their other effects, tend to throw one or both of these limits farther off. Now, these are truths which will appear in the clearest light in a subsequent stage of our investigation68. It will be seen, that the quantity of capital which will, or even which can, be accumulated in any country, and the amount of gross produce which will, or even which can, be raised, bear a proportion to the state of the arts of production there existing; and that every improvement, even if for the time it diminish the circulating capital and the gross produce, ultimately makes room for a larger amount of both, than could possibly have existed otherwise. It is this which is the conclusive69 answer to the objections against machinery; and the proof thence arising of the ultimate benefit to labourers of mechanical inventions even in the existing state of society, will hereafter be seen to be conclusive.3 But this does not discharge governments from the obligation of alleviating70, and if possible preventing, the evils of which this source of ultimate benefit is or may be productive to an existing generation. If the sinking or fixing of capital in machinery or useful works were ever to proceed at such a pace as to impair materially the funds for the maintenance of labour, it would be incumbent71 on legislators to take measures for moderating its rapidity: and since improvements which do not diminish employment on the whole, almost always throw some particular class of labourers out of it, there cannot be a more legitimate72 object of the legislator’s care than the interests of those who are thus sacrificed to the gains of their fellow-citizens and of posterity73.
To return to the theoretical distinction between fixed and circulating capital. Since all wealth which is destined to be employed for reproduction comes within the designation of capital, there are parts of capital which do not agree with the definition of either species of it; for instance, the stock of finished goods which a manufacturer or dealer74 at any time possesses unsold in his warehouses75. But this, though capital as to its destination, is not yet capital in actual exercise. it is not engaged in production, but has first to he sold or exchanged, that is, converted into an equivalent value of some other commodities; and therefore is not yet either fixed or circulating capital; but will become either one or the other, or be eventually divided between them. With the proceeds of his finished goods, a manufacturer will partly pay his work-people, partly replenish76 his stock of the materials of his manufacture, and partly provide new buildings and machinery, or repair the old; but how much will be devoted77 to one purpose, and how much to another, depends on the nature of the manufacture, and the requirements of the particular moment.
It should be observed further, that the portion of capital consumed in the form of seed or material, though, unlike fixed capital, it requires to be at once replaced from the gross produce, stands yet in the same relation to the employment of labour, as fixed capital does. What is expended in materials is as much withdrawn from the maintenance and remuneration of labourers, as what is fixed in machinery; and if capital now expended in wages were diverted to the providing of materials, the effect on the labourers would be as prejudicial as if it were converted into fixed capital. This, however, is a kind of change which seldom, if ever, takes place. The tendency of improvements in production is always to economize78, never to increase, the expenditure of seed or material for a given produce; and the interest of the labourers has no detriment79 to apprehend80 from this source.
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1
adverted
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| 引起注意（advert的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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accurately
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| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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durability
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| n.经久性，耐用性 | |
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expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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durable
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| adj.持久的，耐久的 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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renewal
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| adj.(契约)延期，续订，更新，复活，重来 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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outlay
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| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
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catastrophe
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| n.大灾难，大祸 | |
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outlays
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| v.支出，费用( outlay的第三人称单数 ) | |
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incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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marshy
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| adj.沼泽的 | |
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inundated
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| v.淹没( inundate的过去式和过去分词 )；（洪水般地）涌来；充满；给予或交予（太多事物）使难以应付 | |
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tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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reclaiming
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| v.开拓( reclaim的现在分词 )；要求收回；从废料中回收（有用的材料）；挽救 | |
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dykes
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| abbr.diagonal wire cutters 斜线切割机n.堤( dyke的名词复数 )；坝；堰；沟 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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withdrawn
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| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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deterioration
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| n.退化；恶化；变坏 | |
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permanently
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| adv.永恒地，永久地，固定不变地 | |
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incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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42
arable
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| adj.可耕的，适合种植的 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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dispensed
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| v.分配( dispense的过去式和过去分词 )；施与；配（药） | |
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45
deficit
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| n.亏空，亏损；赤字，逆差 | |
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46
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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49
embarked
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| 乘船( embark的过去式和过去分词 )； 装载； 从事 | |
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50
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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51
augment
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| vt.(使)增大，增加，增长，扩张 | |
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52
thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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53
plausible
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| adj.似真实的，似乎有理的，似乎可信的 | |
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54
superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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transacted
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| v.办理（业务等）( transact的过去式和过去分词 )；交易，谈判 | |
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56
aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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retard
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| n.阻止，延迟；vt.妨碍，延迟，使减速 | |
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habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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contingency
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| n.意外事件，可能性 | |
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impair
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| v.损害，损伤；削弱，减少 | |
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accrue
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| v.(利息等)增大，增多 | |
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Augmented
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| adj.增音的 动词augment的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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savings
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| n.存款，储蓄 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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alleviating
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| 减轻，缓解，缓和( alleviate的现在分词 ) | |
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incumbent
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| adj.成为责任的，有义务的；现任的，在职的 | |
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legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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dealer
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| n.商人，贩子 | |
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warehouses
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| 仓库，货栈( warehouse的名词复数 ) | |
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replenish
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| vt.补充；(把…)装满；(再)填满 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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economize
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| v.节约，节省 | |
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detriment
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| n.损害；损害物，造成损害的根源 | |
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apprehend
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| vt.理解，领悟，逮捕，拘捕，忧虑 | |
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