It is very important that teachers should realize the importance of habit, and psychology8 helps us greatly at this point. We speak, it is true, of good habits and of bad habits; but, when people use the word ‘habit,’ in the majority of instances it is a bad habit which they have in mind. They talk of the smoking-habit and the swearing-habit and the drinking-habit, but not of the abstention-habit or the moderation-habit or the courage-habit. But the fact is that our virtues10 are habits as much as our vices12. All our life, so far as it has definite form, is but a mass of habits — practical, emotional, and intellectual — systematically13 organized for our weal or woe14, and bearing us irresistibly15 toward our destiny, whatever the latter may be.
Since pupils can understand this at a comparatively early age, and since to understand it contributes in no small measure to their feeling of responsibility, it would be well if the teacher were able himself to talk to them of the philosophy of habit in some such abstract terms as I am now about to talk of it to you.
I believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence of the fact that we have bodies. The plasticity of the living matter of our nervous system, in short, is the reason why we do a thing with difficulty the first time, but soon do it more and more easily, and finally, with sufficient practice, do it semi-mechanically, or with hardly any consciousness at all. Our nervous systems have (in Dr. Carpenter’s words) grown to the way in which they have been exercised, just as a sheet of paper or a coat, once creased16 or folded, tends to fall forever afterward17 into the same identical folds.
Habit is thus a second nature, or rather, as the Duke of Wellington said, it is ‘ten times nature,’— at any rate as regards its importance in adult life; for the acquired habits of our training have by that time inhibited18 or strangled most of the natural impulsive19 tendencies which were originally there. Ninety-nine hundredths or, possibly, nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely20 automatic and habitual21, from our rising in the morning to our lying down each night. Our dressing22 and undressing, our eating and drinking, our greetings and partings, our hat-raisings and giving way for ladies to precede, nay23, even most of the forms of our common speech, are things of a type so fixed24 by repetition as almost to be classed as reflex actions. To each sort of impression we have an automatic, ready-made response. My very words to you now are an example of what I mean; for having already lectured upon habit and printed a chapter about it in a book, and read the latter when in print, I find my tongue inevitably25 falling into its old phrases and repeating almost literally26 what I said before.
So far as we are thus mere27 bundles of habit, we are stereotyped28 creatures, imitators and copiers of our past selves. And since this, under any circumstances, is what we always tend to become, it follows first of all that the teacher’s prime concern should be to ingrain into the pupil that assortment29 of habits that shall be most useful to him throughout life. Education is for behavior, and habits are the stuff of which behavior consists.
To quote my earlier book directly, the great thing in all education is to make our nervous system our ally instead of our enemy. It is to fund and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest of the fund. For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early as possible, as many useful actions as we can, and as carefully guard against the growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous. The more of the details of our daily life we can hand over to the effortless custody32 of automatism, the more our higher powers of mind will be set free for their own proper work. There is no more miserable33 human being than one in whom nothing is habitual but indecision, and for whom the lighting34 of every cigar, the drinking of every cup, the time of rising and going to bed every day, and the beginning of every bit of work are subjects of express volitional36 deliberation. Full half the time of such a man goes to the deciding or regretting of matters which ought to be so ingrained in him as practically not to exist for his consciousness at all. If there be such daily duties not yet ingrained in any one of my hearers, let him begin this very hour to set the matter right.
In Professor Bain’s chapter on ‘The Moral Habits’ there are some admirable practical remarks laid down. Two great maxims emerge from the treatment. The first is that in the acquisition of a new habit, or the leaving off of an old one, we must take care to launch ourselves with as strong and decided37 an initiative as possible. Accumulate all the possible circumstances which shall reinforce the right motives38; put yourself assiduously in conditions that encourage the new way; make engagements incompatible39 with the old; take a public pledge, if the case allows; in short, envelope your resolution with every aid you know. This will give your new beginning such a momentum40 that the temptation to break down will not occur as soon as it otherwise might; and every day during which a breakdown41 is postponed43 adds to the chances of its not occurring at all.
I remember long ago reading in an Austrian paper the advertisement of a certain Rudolph Somebody, who promised fifty gulden reward to any one who after that date should find him at the wine-shop of Ambrosius So-and-so. ‘This I do,’ the advertisement continued, ‘in consequence of a promise which I have made my wife.’ With such a wife, and such an understanding of the way in which to start new habits, it would be safe to stake one’s money on Rudolph’s ultimate success.
The second maxim is, Never suffer an exception to occur till the new habit is securely rooted in your life. Each lapse44 is like the letting fall of a ball of string which one is carefully winding45 up: a single slip undoes46 more than a great many turns will wind again. Continuity of training is the great means of making the nervous system act infallibly right. As Professor Bain says:—
“The peculiarity47 of the moral habits, contradistinguishing them from the intellectual acquisitions, is the presence of two hostile powers, one to be gradually raised into the ascendant over the other. It is necessary above all things, in such a situation, never to lose a battle. Every gain on the wrong side undoes the effect of many conquests on the right. The essential precaution, therefore, is so to regulate the two opposing powers that the one may have a series of uninterrupted successes, until repetition has fortified48 it to such a degree as to enable it to cope with the opposition49, under any circumstances. This is the theoretically best career of mental progress.”
A third maxim may be added to the preceding pair: Seize the very first possible opportunity to act on every resolution you make, and on every emotional prompting you may experience in the direction of the habits you aspire50 to gain. It is not in the moment of their forming, but in the moment of their producing motor effects, that resolves and aspirations51 communicate the new ‘set’ to the brain.
No matter how full a reservoir of maxims one may possess, and no matter how good one’s sentiments may be, if one have not taken advantage of every concrete opportunity to act, one’s character may remain entirely52 unaffected for the better. With good intentions, hell proverbially is paved. This is an obvious consequence of the principles I have laid down. A ‘character,’ as J.S. Mill says, ‘is a completely fashioned will’; and a will, in the sense in which he means it, is an aggregate53 of tendencies to act in a firm and prompt and definite way upon all the principal emergencies of life. A tendency to act only becomes effectively ingrained in us in proportion to the uninterrupted frequency with which the actions actually occur, and the brain ‘grows’ to their use. When a resolve or a fine glow of feeling is allowed to evaporate without bearing practical fruit, it is worse than a chance lost: it works so as positively54 to hinder future resolutions and emotions from taking the normal path of discharge. There is no more contemptible55 type of human character than that of the nerveless sentimentalist and dreamer, who spends his life in a weltering sea of sensibility, but never does a concrete manly56 deed.
This leads to a fourth maxim. Don’t preach too much to your pupils or abound57 in good talk in the abstract. Lie in wait rather for the practical opportunities, be prompt to seize those as they pass, and thus at one operation get your pupils both to think, to feel, and to do. The strokes of behavior are what give the new set to the character, and work the good habits into its organic tissue. Preaching and talking too soon become an ineffectual bore.
* * * * *
There is a passage in Darwin’s short autobiography58 which has been often quoted, and which, for the sake of its bearing on our subject of habit, I must now quote again. Darwin says: “Up to the age of thirty or beyond it, poetry of many kinds gave me great pleasure; and even as a schoolboy I took intense delight in Shakespeare, especially in the historical plays. I have also said that pictures formerly59 gave me considerable, and music very great delight. But now for many years I cannot endure to read a line of poetry. I have tried lately to read Shakespeare, and found it so intolerably dull that it nauseated60 me. I have also almost lost my taste for pictures or music. . . . My mind seems to have become a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of large collections of facts; but why this should have caused the atrophy61 of that part of the brain alone, on which the higher tastes depend, I cannot conceive. . . . If I had to live my life again, I would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once every week; for perhaps the parts of my brain now atrophied62 would thus have been kept alive through use. The loss of these tastes is a loss of happiness, and may possibly be injurious to the intellect, and more probably to the moral character, by enfeebling the emotional part of our nature.”
We all intend when young to be all that may become a man, before the destroyer cuts us down. We wish and expect to enjoy poetry always, to grow more and more intelligent about pictures and music, to keep in touch with spiritual and religious ideas, and even not to let the greater philosophic63 thoughts of our time develop quite beyond our view. We mean all this in youth, I say; and yet in how many middle-aged64 men and women is such an honest and sanguine65 expectation fulfilled? Surely, in comparatively few; and the laws of habit show us why. Some interest in each of these things arises in everybody at the proper age; but, if not persistently66 fed with the appropriate matter, instead of growing into a powerful and necessary habit, it atrophies67 and dies, choked by the rival interests to which the daily food is given. We make ourselves into Darwins in this negative respect by persistently ignoring the essential practical conditions of our case. We say abstractly: “I mean to enjoy poetry, and to absorb a lot of it, of course. I fully31 intend to keep up my love of music, to read the books that shall give new turns to the thought of my time, to keep my higher spiritual side alive, etc.” But we do not attack these things concretely, and we do not begin today. We forget that every good that is worth possessing must be paid for in strokes of daily effort. We postpone42 and postpone, until those smiling possibilities are dead. Whereas ten minutes a day of poetry, of spiritual reading or meditation68, and an hour or two a week at music, pictures, or philosophy, provided we began now and suffered no remission, would infallibly give us in due time the fulness of all we desire. By neglecting the necessary concrete labor69, by sparing ourselves the little daily tax, we are positively digging the graves of our higher possibilities. This is a point concerning which you teachers might well give a little timely information to your older and more aspiring70 pupils.
According as a function receives daily exercise or not, the man becomes a different kind of being in later life. We have lately had a number of accomplished71 Hindoo visitors at Cambridge, who talked freely of life and philosophy. More than one of them has confided72 to me that the sight of our faces, all contracted as they are with the habitual American over-intensity and anxiety of expression, and our ungraceful and distorted attitudes when sitting, made on him a very painful impression. “I do not see,” said one, “how it is possible for you to live as you do, without a single minute in your day deliberately73 given to tranquillity74 and meditation. It is an invariable part of our Hindoo life to retire for at least half an hour daily into silence, to relax our muscles, govern our breathing, and meditate75 on eternal things. Every Hindoo child is trained to this from a very early age.” The good fruits of such a discipline were obvious in the physical repose76 and lack of tension, and the wonderful smoothness and calmness of facial expression, and imperturbability77 of manner of these Orientals. I felt that my countrymen were depriving themselves of an essential grace of character. How many American children ever hear it said by parent or teacher, that they should moderate their piercing voices, that they should relax their unused muscles, and as far as possible, when sitting, sit quite still? Not one in a thousand, not one in five thousand! Yet, from its reflex influence on the inner mental states, this ceaseless over-tension, over-motion, and over-expression are working on us grievous national harm.
I beg you teachers to think a little seriously of this matter. Perhaps you can help our rising generation of Americans toward the beginning of a better set of personal ideals.2
2 See the Address on the Gospel of Relaxation, later in this volume.
* * * * *
To go back now to our general maxims, I may at last, as a fifth and final practical maxim about habits, offer something like this: Keep the faculty of effort alive in you by a little gratuitous78 exercise every day. That is, be systematically heroic in little unnecessary points, do every day or two something for no other reason than its difficulty, so that, when the hour of dire30 need draws nigh, it may find you not unnerved and untrained to stand the test. Asceticism79 of this sort is like the insurance which a man pays on his house and goods. The tax does him no good at the time, and possibly may never bring him a return. But, if the fire does come, his having paid it will be his salvation80 from ruin. So with the man who has daily inured81 himself to habits of concentrated attention, energetic volition35, and self-denial in unnecessary things. He will stand like a tower when everything rocks around him, and his softer fellow-mortals are winnowed82 like chaff83 in the blast.
* * * * *
I have been accused, when talking of the subject of habit, of making old habits appear so strong that the acquiring of new ones, and particularly anything like a sudden reform or conversion6, would be made impossible by my doctrine84. Of course, this would suffice to condemn85 the latter; for sudden conversions, however infrequent they may be, unquestionably do occur. But there is no incompatibility86 between the general laws I have laid down and the most startling sudden alterations87 in the way of character. New habits can be launched, I have expressly said, on condition of there being new stimuli88 and new excitements. Now life abounds89 in these, and sometimes they are such critical and revolutionary experiences that they change a man’s whole scale of values and system of ideas. In such cases, the old order of his habits will be ruptured90; and, if the new motives are lasting91, new habits will be formed, and build up in him a new or regenerate92 ‘nature.’
All this kind of fact I fully allow. But the general laws of habit are no wise altered thereby93, and the physiological94 study of mental conditions still remains95 on the whole the most powerful ally of hortatory ethics96. The hell to be endured hereafter, of which theology tells, is no worse than the hell we make for ourselves in this world by habitually97 fashioning our characters in the wrong way. Could the young but realize how soon they will become mere walking bundles of habits, they would give more heed98 to their conduct while in the plastic state. We are spinning our own fates, good or evil, and never to be undone99. Every smallest stroke of virtue9 or of vice11 leaves its never-so-little scar. The drunken Rip Van Winkle, in Jefferson’s play, excuses himself for every fresh dereliction by saying, “I won’t count this time!” Well, he may not count it, and a kind Heaven may not count it; but it is being counted none the less. Down among his nerve-cells and fibres the molecules100 are counting it, registering and storing it up to be used against him when the next temptation comes. Nothing we ever do is, in strict scientific literalness, wiped out.
Of course, this has its good side as well as its bad one. As we become permanent drunkards by so many separate drinks, so we become saints in the moral, and authorities and experts in the practical and scientific spheres, by so many separate acts and hours of work. Let no youth have any anxiety about the upshot of his education, whatever the line of it may be. If he keep faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely leave the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count on waking up some fine morning to find himself one of the competent ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he may have singled out. Silently, between all the details of his business, the power of judging in all that class of matter will have built itself up within him as a possession that will never pass away. Young people should know this truth in advance. The ignorance of it has probably engendered101 more discouragement and faint-heartedness in youths embarking102 on arduous103 careers than all other causes put together.
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maxims
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| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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relaxation
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| n.松弛，放松；休息；消遣；娱乐 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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conversions
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| 变换( conversion的名词复数 )； （宗教、信仰等）彻底改变； （尤指为居住而）改建的房屋； 橄榄球（触地得分后再把球射中球门的）附加得分 | |
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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momentous
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| adj.重要的，重大的 | |
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psychology
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| n.心理，心理学，心理状态 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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systematically
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| adv.有系统地 | |
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woe
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| n.悲哀，苦痛，不幸，困难；int.用来表达悲伤或惊慌 | |
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irresistibly
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| adv.无法抵抗地，不能自持地；极为诱惑人地 | |
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creased
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| （使…）起折痕，弄皱( crease的过去式和过去分词 )； （皮肤）皱起，使起皱纹； 皱皱巴巴 | |
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afterward
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| adv.后来；以后 | |
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inhibited
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| a.拘谨的，拘束的 | |
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impulsive
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| adj.冲动的，刺激的；有推动力的 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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dressing
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| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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stereotyped
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| adj.(指形象、思想、人物等)模式化的 | |
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assortment
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| n.分类，各色俱备之物，聚集 | |
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dire
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| adj.可怕的，悲惨的，阴惨的，极端的 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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custody
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| n.监护，照看，羁押，拘留 | |
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miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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lighting
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| n.照明，光线的明暗，舞台灯光 | |
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volition
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| n.意志；决意 | |
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volitional
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| adj.意志的，凭意志的，有意志的 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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momentum
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| n.动力，冲力，势头；动量 | |
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breakdown
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| n.垮，衰竭；损坏，故障，倒塌 | |
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postpone
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| v.延期，推迟 | |
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postponed
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| vt.& vi.延期，缓办，（使）延迟vt.把…放在次要地位；[语]把…放在后面（或句尾）vi.（疟疾等）延缓发作（或复发） | |
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lapse
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| n.过失，流逝，失效，抛弃信仰，间隔；vi.堕落，停止，失效，流逝；vt.使失效 | |
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winding
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| n.绕，缠，绕组，线圈 | |
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undoes
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| 松开( undo的第三人称单数 )； 解开； 毁灭； 败坏 | |
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peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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fortified
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| adj. 加强的 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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aspire
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| vi.(to，after)渴望，追求，有志于 | |
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aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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contemptible
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| adj.可鄙的，可轻视的，卑劣的 | |
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manly
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| adj.有男子气概的；adv.男子般地，果断地 | |
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abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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autobiography
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| n.自传 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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nauseated
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| adj.作呕的，厌恶的v.使恶心，作呕( nauseate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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atrophy
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| n./v.萎缩，虚脱，衰退 | |
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atrophied
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| adj.萎缩的，衰退的v.（使）萎缩，（使）虚脱，（使）衰退( atrophy的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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philosophic
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| adj.哲学的，贤明的 | |
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middle-aged
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| adj.中年的 | |
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sanguine
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| adj.充满希望的，乐观的，血红色的 | |
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persistently
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| ad.坚持地；固执地 | |
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atrophies
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| n.萎缩，衰退( atrophy的名词复数 )v.（使）萎缩，（使）虚脱，（使）衰退( atrophy的第三人称单数 ) | |
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meditation
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| n.熟虑，（尤指宗教的）默想，沉思，（pl.）冥想录 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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aspiring
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| adj.有志气的；有抱负的；高耸的v.渴望；追求 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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confided
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| v.吐露（秘密，心事等）( confide的过去式和过去分词 )；（向某人）吐露（隐私、秘密等） | |
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deliberately
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| adv.审慎地；蓄意地；故意地 | |
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tranquillity
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| n. 平静, 安静 | |
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meditate
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| v.想，考虑，（尤指宗教上的）沉思，冥想 | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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imperturbability
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| n.冷静；沉着 | |
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gratuitous
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| adj.无偿的，免费的；无缘无故的，不必要的 | |
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asceticism
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| n.禁欲主义 | |
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salvation
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| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
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inured
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| adj.坚强的，习惯的 | |
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winnowed
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| adj.扬净的，风选的v.扬( winnow的过去式和过去分词 )；辨别；选择；除去 | |
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chaff
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| v.取笑，嘲笑；n.谷壳 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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incompatibility
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| n.不兼容 | |
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alterations
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| n.改动( alteration的名词复数 )；更改；变化；改变 | |
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stimuli
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| n.刺激（物） | |
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abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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ruptured
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| v.（使）破裂( rupture的过去式和过去分词 )；（使体内组织等）断裂；使（友好关系）破裂；使绝交 | |
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lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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regenerate
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| vt.使恢复，使新生；vi.恢复，再生；adj.恢复的 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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physiological
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| adj.生理学的，生理学上的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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ethics
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| n.伦理学；伦理观，道德标准 | |
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habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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heed
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| v.注意，留意；n.注意，留心 | |
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undone
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| a.未做完的，未完成的 | |
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molecules
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| 分子( molecule的名词复数 ) | |
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engendered
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| v.产生（某形势或状况），造成，引起( engender的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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embarking
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| 乘船( embark的现在分词 )； 装载； 从事 | |
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arduous
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| adj.艰苦的，费力的，陡峭的 | |
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