The opportune1 arrival of a beautiful little Elephant, an animal which has for some time been a desideratum to the Menagerie, fortunately enables us to add to our list of subjects that which in all probability presents the most generally attractive spectacle among the whole class of Mammiferous Quadrupeds. The strong and peculiar2 interest which the Elephant possesses above all other beasts arises in fact not so much from his gigantic bulk and immense muscular power, as from the high opinion usually entertained of those intellectual qualities with which he has long been supposed to be preeminently endowed, and which have rendered him a[164] theme of exaggerated encomium3 to the careless observer, while even in some philosophic4 minds they have furnished the groundwork on which perverted5 ingenuity6 has built up theory after theory as baseless and imaginary as the foundation on which they have been made to rest, the reason and reflection of a brute7.
It is on this account that we feel it incumbent8 upon us, notwithstanding all that has been written on the subject, to dwell with some little detail on the natural history of this singular animal; but we shall nevertheless endeavour to compress our observations within the smallest possible compass. We shall commence as usual with his zoological characters, and shall then take a glance at his habits, such as they appear in a pure state of nature, unfettered by any laws but those of necessity, and uncontrolled except by the inevitable10 influence of the circumstances in which he is placed. And lastly we shall view him when under the control of man, and reduced to that half-domesticated11 condition to which even his stubborn nature is bowed by the application of those means which man alone can employ, and by which he maintains his ascendancy12 as undisputed lord of the creation over the mightiest13 even more effectually than over the meanest of its works.
The Elephants belong to the Pachydermatous order, in which they constitute a family readily distinguishable from the other enormous beasts which form part of it, the Hippopotamus14 and the Rhinoceros15, by a combination of characters of the most remarkable16 description. To the immense size and clumsy figure of the two last named animals, which indeed they commonly surpass in both those particulars, they add the following distinctive[165] zoological characters. Their teeth consist of two formidable tusks17, which, occupying the place of the incisors of the upper jaw18, project forwards in a nearly horizontal direction, generally with a slight curvature upwards19; and of one or occasionally two cheek teeth of considerable magnitude on each side of each jaw, formed of vertical20 layers of bony matter surrounded by enamel21, and connected together by a third substance called cortical. These latter are not, as in almost all the other Mammalia, renewed for one only time and at a certain age by the growth of others to supply their places from the cavity of the jaw beneath them; but, on the contrary, are pushed forwards by the advance of those which are destined22 to replace them from behind, and are renewed, according to the statement of Mr. Corse, no less than eight times at different periods of the animal’s existence. On each successive change the number of lamin? of which they are composed is increased, the earliest not offering more than four, while the later ones frequently exceed twenty; and it is in consequence of the new teeth generally making their appearance for some time prior to the total failure of their predecessors24 that their number occasionally appears to be double its proper and more usual amount. The tusks on the contrary admit but of a single displacement25 and renewal26; the first or milk pair seldom exceeding two inches in length, and falling out between the first and second year. The permanent ones which succeed are much larger and more powerful in the adult male than in the female, and not unfrequently project as much as two feet. They are well known as furnishing one of the most beautiful and ornamental27 productions which the animal kingdom[166] affords, as well as a valuable article of commerce, in the pure and polished ivory of which they are formed. They have been known to weigh as much as one hundred and fifty pounds, but their usual average is from fifty to seventy.
The ears of the Elephant are large, not elevated like those of other quadrupeds so as to form a kind of trumpet28 for the reception of sound, but flattened29 down upon the side of the head, and forming a broad and uninterruptedly expanded surface. His eyes, remarkably30 small in proportion to his bulk, are sheltered above by a cluster of long hairs, which, with a few others scattered31 over the head and still more rarely on the body, and a kind of brush at the extremity33 of the tail, constitute the only covering, if covering it may be called, with which he is provided. His skin in fact is throughout nearly destitute34 of hair; but in return it is, as in the rest of the order, of excessive thickness and extreme tenacity35, insomuch as to be capable of repelling36 a common musket37 ball, which scarcely makes the slightest impression upon its surface. His feet are enveloped38 by a large hoof39 of a callous40 and almost horny consistence, and are divided, in the skeleton at least, into five toes, the extremities41 only of which, rendered obvious by the nails by which they are surmounted42, are externally visible. On the hind23 feet the number of apparent toes varies from three to four.
But of all the peculiarities43 by which the Elephant is distinguished44, the most singular and at the same time the most useful is the projection45 which is formed by the blending and extension of the nose and upper lip into an elongated46 and tapering47 tube, considerably48 longer than[167] the head, and truncated49 at the extremity, where it is surrounded by a slightly elevated margin50, which is prolonged anteriorly51 and superiorly into a finger-like appendage52 of various and invaluable53 use. This trunk or proboscis54, as it is called, is divided throughout its whole extent into two equal cavities, which are continuous with the nostrils55, but appear to have no other connexion with the organ of smell than as being the medium of the passage of odours to the olfactory56 apparatus57, which is confined within the bones of the head, and is indeed seated much higher than usual in consequence of the large space occupied by the roots of the tusks and by the cavities of the maxillary bones. The real uses of the trunk are far higher and more important; and it is to this unique and unexampled structure that the Elephant owes whatever superiority he possesses over other beasts. In general capacity he is inferior to most, and the intellectual qualities of a dog or a horse are unquestionably of a far more elevated order; but with the assistance of this curious organ, with some little sagacity, a tolerable memory, and a certain degree of docility58, the Elephant is enabled to execute such a variety of actions, either of his own accord or at the command of his keeper, as have gained him the credit not only of being the cleverest of brutes59, but of possessing qualities of a superior cast and even the divine gift of reason itself.
The structure of the trunk is entirely60 muscular, and the fibres of which it is composed are arranged in such a manner that it is capable of being inflected in almost any direction; but to twist itself spirally inwards appears to be its most natural action. In this manner it will[168] grasp with the utmost firmness, for its strength is fully61 equal to its flexibility62, whatever it may seize; and it is by this means that the Elephant conveys his food to his mouth. Being purely63 herbivorous, but encumbered64 with a head and appendages65 so weighty as to require all the support to be derived66 from an excessively short and almost unyielding neck, it would be utterly67 impossible for him to browse68 upon the herbage from which his sustenance69 is chiefly derived, and he would consequently run no small risk of absolute starvation, were it not for this admirable provision, by means of which he collects and enfolds his food, and conveys it to his mouth with as much ease and precision as a Monkey would execute the same motions with his hands. In drinking too the trunk offers the same facilities and performs the same useful and necessary office. Placing its extremity in the fluid which he is about to drink, the Elephant pumps up, or rather inhales70, a sufficient quantity to fill its cavities, and then transferring it to his mouth pours its contents quietly down his throat. When his thirst is satisfied he will frequently continue the same process of filling his trunk for the purpose of discharging the liquid contained in it over his body, an indulgence in which he appears to take no little pleasure; and will even sometimes amuse himself by directing the fluid to other objects.
The Asiatic Elephant was until very lately considered as forming one species with the African, the clear and obvious distinctions which exist between them never having been noticed until pointed71 out by M. Cuvier, notwithstanding that both have been familiarly known for more than two thousand years to the nations of[169] Europe, the former having formed an important part of the armament with which Porus withstood the conquering arms of Alexander, and having been subsequently introduced even into Italy by Pyrrhus; and the latter, as we may fairly presume, furnishing those individuals which were employed in the warlike array of the Carthaginians. The Asiatic animal appears when fully grown to attain72 a larger size than the African, the females commonly measuring from seven to eight, and the males from eight to ten feet in height, and sometimes weighing six or seven thousand pounds. His head is more oblong, and his forehead presents in the centre a deep concavity between two lateral73 and rounded elevations74; that of the African being round and convex in all its parts. The teeth of the former are composed of transverse vertical lamin? of equal breadth, while those of the latter form rhomboidal or lozenge-shaped divisions. The ears of the Asiatic are also smaller and descend75 no lower than his neck, and he exhibits four distinct toes on his hind feet: the African on the contrary is furnished with ears of much greater size, descending76 to his legs, and no more than three toes are visible on his posterior extremities. These differences are so striking and important, and indeed, so far as regards the form of the head and the structure of the teeth, so essential, that it is impossible not to adopt the division which has been founded upon them, and to consider the natives of the two continents as originally and specifically distinct.
The Asiatic Elephants themselves vary considerably in several minor77 particulars, such as the comparative length and thickness of their trunks and of their tusks, the latter of which are sometimes, even in the males, of[170] very small dimensions. But these variations are evidently the result of locality and other fortuitous circumstances, the species appearing gradually to degenerate78 as it recedes79 from the tropics, and to improve as it advances towards the line. The Elephants of Ceylon are consequently in the highest esteem80 for size, beauty, and hardihood, and those of Pegu are but little inferior to them; while those of the northern districts of India are held in comparatively trifling81 estimation.
These animals are by nature sociable82, and congregate83 together in herds85, which frequently amount to more than a hundred. The imposing86 spectacle furnished by such a collection of these immense masses of animated87 matter may well be imagined. They generally seek the shade of the forest, in which they find additional means of subsistence in the young shoots of the trees, which supply the place of other and more congenial herbs. They frequently issue from it, however, in quest of the latter, and also to indulge in a propensity88 possessed89 by them in common with all those animals which like them are furnished with thick and almost naked, or with bristly, skins, that of bathing in the water or wallowing in the mud. It is for this reason that they are usually met with in the neighbourhood of large streams, which their great size and the quantity of fat with which they are commonly loaded enable them to swim with facility. Their trunk is also extremely serviceable in this operation, as it enables them to bury as it were the whole of their body beneath the water, retaining above the surface no more than the extremity of that organ for the admission and expulsion of the air. After having been for some time in the water, it is said that their skin loses the[171] dusky hue90 by which it is usually distinguished in consequence of the dirt and other matters with which it is incrusted, and assumes a perfect flesh-colour marked with numerous round and blackish spots. This natural colour is, however, lost almost immediately on their reaching the land, when they uniformly scatter32 themselves all over by means of their trunk with the mud or dust which first falls in their way. So fond are they of this process that they commonly recur91 to it whenever an opportunity offers. The bathing appears to be absolutely necessary in order to keep their skins to a certain extent supple92 and flexible; for which purpose their keepers, in captivity93, occasionally have recourse to the smearing94 them with oil as a substitute.
Like other herbivorous quadrupeds they are, generally speaking, quiet and harmless, intent solely95 upon providing for their wants, and never attacking man or other animals unless provoked or when under the influence of excitement. In this latter case they make use not only of their proboscis, which they wield96 with great dexterity97 as a weapon of offence, but also of their tusks, with which they inflict98 the most tremendous wounds. Their speed in pursuit corresponds rather with the cumbrousness than with the magnitude of their frame, the excessive weight of which soon renders them weary, and compels them to slacken their pace; which, when urged to the utmost, is barely equal to that of a horse of moderate fleetness. They will sometimes penetrate99 in quest of food into the rice fields and sugar plantations100, in which they commit the most extensive ravages101, not so much by the quantity which they consume as by that which they destroy. The solitary102 individuals, which are[172] occasionally met with separate from the general herd84, indulge perhaps more frequently in these excesses than the community, which generally avoids as much as possible the habitations of man. It has commonly been imagined that these stray Elephants were the younger and weaker males, who had been driven from the herd by their more powerful fellows; but the fact that they are usually adults of the largest size completely negatives this supposition, and proves that it is of their own free will that they wander thus alone. They attain their full growth between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four, and well authenticated103 instances have occurred in which they have reached the age of a hundred and thirty years. Indeed there is reason to believe that their life may be sometimes prolonged to two centuries.
The usual mode of catching104 the wild Elephants for the purpose of domestication105 has been so often described that it would be superfluous106 to repeat it here. It may be sufficient to observe that a herd of them having been driven by the hunters into an enclosure surrounded by palisades and ditches, and provided only with a narrow pass by way of egress107, they are there made prisoners one after the other, and attached to the tame elephants, which are employed on such occasions partly as decoys and partly as guards over their captive brethren. The necessity of having recourse to this mode of supplying the wants, or rather of ministering to the pride, of the sovereigns of the East, both native and European, who alike regard these animals as the indispensable appendages of their rank, arises from the circumstance of the breed being very rarely propagated in captivity; the Hindoos being either too ignorant or too careless to adopt the requisite[173] measures for securing its continuance, and relying upon the certainty of being enabled by their hunting to keep up a sufficient supply. But there can be little doubt, from what we observe in other animals, that had a domesticated breed of Elephants existed from the times when their services were first made available to man, they would have been far superior both in sagacity and docility to the half-reclaimed individuals at present employed.
It may readily be supposed that the taming of these wild and unwieldy creatures is a task of no little difficulty and delicacy108: but the experienced keepers by whom it is undertaken seldom fail to execute it with success. It is effected partly by reducing the strength of the animal by restricting him in the quantity of his food, by the employment of caresses109 or of castigation110 according to the dispositions111 he may manifest, by occasionally indulging him in sweetmeats or in other dainty fare, and by subjecting him to the control of the tame elephants, and especially of the females, which are more commonly employed for this purpose. By the application of these means the space of a fortnight is generally sufficient to reduce him to a certain degree of tameness, and in less than six months he is trained to the various exercises which it is intended that he should perform, and his education is regarded as complete. They do not, however, always become familiar and habituated to their new mode of life even within this period of time; for, according to the statement of Mr. Corse, Elephants have been known to stand twelve months at their pickets112 without lying down to sleep; and this is regarded as a certain sign of want of confidence in their keepers and of[174] a longing113 desire to regain114 their liberty. It is probably to some such circumstance as this that we are indebted for the erroneous idea so generally prevalent that these animals always sleep standing9; whereas the truth is, that when perfectly115 at ease and reconciled to their fate, they lie down on their sides and sleep like other beasts.
The purposes for which they are commonly employed are rather those of pomp, of luxury, and of ostentation116, than of utility. As a means of warlike offence they have been, since the introduction of firearms, absolutely disused; and it is only as beasts of burden that they are turned to any useful account. In this respect the services of a single Elephant are equal to those of five or six horses, as they will carry from fifteen to twenty hundred weight, and travel from forty to fifty miles a day. They generally consume a hundred weight and a half or two hundred weight of solid food, and thirty or forty gallons of fluid, in the course of the day. They are fond of wine, spirits, and other intoxicating117 articles, by the attraction of which they are frequently induced to exert their powers, and to perform various feats118 of dexterity, when all other methods have failed to render them tractable119. They become strongly attached to their keepers; but, if irritated by ill usage, their hatred120 is as violent as their affection, and is carefully stored up until a favourable121 opportunity occurs, when they seldom fail to remember an insult or an injury, even at very distant periods of time.
With regard to their sagacity much has been written, and many exaggerated and many incredible stories have been told; but it would appear that those who have attributed to the Elephant a degree of intelligence[175] superior to every other beast, have been misled by outward appearances, and by the natural prepossession arising from his gigantic and imposing figure. Without his trunk, upon the singular and admirable structure of which most of that skill and dexterity which have been regarded as the result of mental reflection is entirely dependent, he would be, in all probability, as very a brute as the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, or the hog122. By means of that organ, however, he unquestionably acquires the capacity of performing feats of which other animals are incapable123; but here his superiority ends. In intelligence, as in docility, he is far inferior to the dog; and many other quadrupeds might fairly compete with him in both. Thus to turn a key in a lock, to push back a bolt, to untie124 a rope, to uncork a bottle, to search in the pockets of his keepers for apples or oranges, these and many other tricks of a similar kind, for which he is famous, are evidently nothing more than mechanical actions, to the performance of which he is stimulated125, like other beasts, at first by the promise of reward or the fear of chastisement126, and afterwards by the mere127 force of habit. In like manner the dexterity with which he learns to load and unload himself, or to place a man or child upon his back by means of his trunk, without offering them the slightest injury; and on the other hand the precision with which he is made to execute the will of the Asiatic despot on the unhappy victims of his displeasure, by seizing them and casting them beneath his feet, to be there dispatched, according to the tenor128 of the orders which he receives, either with a single crush, or with all the horrors of a lingering death; these also are actions of no higher order than many other animals are[176] equally capable of in a moral point of view, although not so well fitted for them by physical conformation.
In conclusion we have only to add that the fine little Elephant from which our figure was taken appears from his dimensions and from the very small size of his tusks to be little more than three years old. He is extremely good tempered, and became reconciled to his situation almost from the very moment of his arrival.
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1
opportune
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| adj.合适的，适当的 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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encomium
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| n.赞颂；颂词 | |
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philosophic
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| adj.哲学的，贤明的 | |
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perverted
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| adj.不正当的v.滥用( pervert的过去式和过去分词 )；腐蚀；败坏；使堕落 | |
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ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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brute
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| n.野兽，兽性 | |
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incumbent
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| adj.成为责任的，有义务的；现任的，在职的 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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domesticated
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| adj.喜欢家庭生活的；（指动物）被驯养了的v.驯化( domesticate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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ascendancy
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| n.统治权，支配力量 | |
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mightiest
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| adj.趾高气扬( mighty的最高级 )；巨大的；强有力的；浩瀚的 | |
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hippopotamus
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| n.河马 | |
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rhinoceros
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| n.犀牛 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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tusks
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| n.（象等动物的）长牙( tusk的名词复数 )；獠牙；尖形物；尖头 | |
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jaw
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| n.颚，颌，说教，流言蜚语；v.喋喋不休，教训 | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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vertical
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| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
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enamel
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| n.珐琅，搪瓷，瓷釉；(牙齿的)珐琅质 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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hind
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| adj.后面的，后部的 | |
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predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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displacement
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| n.移置，取代，位移，排水量 | |
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renewal
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| adj.(契约)延期，续订，更新，复活，重来 | |
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ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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trumpet
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| n.喇叭，喇叭声；v.吹喇叭，吹嘘 | |
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flattened
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| [医]（水）平扁的，弄平的 | |
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remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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scatter
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| vt.撒，驱散，散开；散布/播；vi.分散，消散 | |
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extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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tenacity
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| n.坚韧 | |
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repelling
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| v.击退( repel的现在分词 )；使厌恶；排斥；推开 | |
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musket
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| n.滑膛枪 | |
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enveloped
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| v.包围，笼罩，包住( envelop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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hoof
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| n.(马，牛等的)蹄 | |
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callous
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| adj.无情的，冷淡的，硬结的，起老茧的 | |
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extremities
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| n.端点( extremity的名词复数 )；尽头；手和足；极窘迫的境地 | |
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surmounted
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| 战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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projection
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| n.发射，计划，突出部分 | |
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elongated
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| v.延长，加长( elongate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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tapering
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| adj.尖端细的 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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truncated
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| adj.切去顶端的，缩短了的，被删节的v.截面的( truncate的过去式和过去分词 )；截头的；缩短了的；截去顶端或末端 | |
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margin
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| n.页边空白；差额；余地，余裕；边，边缘 | |
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anteriorly
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| adv.先前地，居先地 | |
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appendage
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| n.附加物 | |
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invaluable
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| adj.无价的，非常宝贵的，极为贵重的 | |
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proboscis
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| n.（象的）长鼻 | |
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nostrils
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| 鼻孔( nostril的名词复数 ) | |
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olfactory
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| adj.嗅觉的 | |
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apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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docility
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| n.容易教，易驾驶，驯服 | |
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59
brutes
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| 兽( brute的名词复数 )； 畜生； 残酷无情的人； 兽性 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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flexibility
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| n.柔韧性，弹性，（光的）折射性，灵活性 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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encumbered
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| v.妨碍，阻碍，拖累( encumber的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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appendages
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| n.附属物( appendage的名词复数 )；依附的人；附属器官；附属肢体（如臂、腿、尾等） | |
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66
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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browse
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| vi.随意翻阅，浏览；(牛、羊等)吃草 | |
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sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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inhales
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| v.吸入( inhale的第三人称单数 ) | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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lateral
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| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
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elevations
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| （水平或数量）提高( elevation的名词复数 )； 高地； 海拔； 提升 | |
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descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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degenerate
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| v.退步，堕落；adj.退步的，堕落的；n.堕落者 | |
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recedes
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| v.逐渐远离( recede的第三人称单数 )；向后倾斜；自原处后退或避开别人的注视；尤指问题 | |
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esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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sociable
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| adj.好交际的，友好的，合群的 | |
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congregate
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| v.(使)集合，聚集 | |
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herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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animated
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| adj.生气勃勃的，活跃的，愉快的 | |
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propensity
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| n.倾向；习性 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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hue
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| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
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recur
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| vi.复发，重现，再发生 | |
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supple
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| adj.柔软的，易弯的，逢迎的，顺从的，灵活的；vt.使柔软，使柔顺，使顺从；vi.变柔软，变柔顺 | |
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captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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smearing
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| 污点，拖尾效应 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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wield
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| vt.行使，运用，支配；挥，使用(武器等) | |
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dexterity
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| n.(手的)灵巧，灵活 | |
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inflict
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| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
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penetrate
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| v.透(渗)入；刺入，刺穿；洞察，了解 | |
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plantations
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| n.种植园，大农场( plantation的名词复数 ) | |
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ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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authenticated
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| v.证明是真实的、可靠的或有效的( authenticate的过去式和过去分词 )；鉴定，使生效 | |
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104
catching
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| adj.易传染的，有魅力的，迷人的，接住 | |
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domestication
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| n.驯养，驯化 | |
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106
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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107
egress
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| n.出去；出口 | |
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108
delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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caresses
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| 爱抚，抚摸( caress的名词复数 ) | |
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110
castigation
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| n.申斥，强烈反对 | |
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111
dispositions
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| 安排( disposition的名词复数 )； 倾向； （财产、金钱的）处置； 气质 | |
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pickets
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| 罢工纠察员( picket的名词复数 ) | |
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113
longing
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| n.（for）渴望 | |
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114
regain
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| vt.重新获得，收复，恢复 | |
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115
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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116
ostentation
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| n.夸耀，卖弄 | |
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117
intoxicating
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| a. 醉人的,使人兴奋的 | |
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118
feats
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| 功绩，伟业，技艺( feat的名词复数 ) | |
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119
tractable
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| adj.易驾驭的；温顺的 | |
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120
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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121
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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122
hog
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| n.猪；馋嘴贪吃的人；vt.把…占为己有，独占 | |
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123
incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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124
untie
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| vt.解开，松开；解放 | |
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125
stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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126
chastisement
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| n.惩罚 | |
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127
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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128
tenor
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| n.男高音（歌手），次中音（乐器），要旨，大意 | |
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