In reality the Gulf Stream is only a part of a system of oceanic circulation; but in dealing9 with the arguments which have been urged against its very existence, we may confine our attention to the fact that, according to the views which had been accepted for more than a century, there is a stream of water which, running out of the Gulf Stream through the Narrows of Bemini, flows along the shores of the United States to Newfoundland, and thence right across the Atlantic to the shores of Great Britain. It is this last fact which is now called in question. The existence of a current as far as the neighbourhood of Newfoundland is conceded, but the fact that the stream flows onward10 to our shores is denied.
The point on which most stress is placed is the shallowness of the passage called the ‘Bemini Narrows,’ through which it is assumed that the whole of the Gulf current must pass. This passage has a width of about forty miles, and a depth of little more than six hundred yards. The current which flows through it is perhaps little more than thirty miles in width, and a quarter of a mile in depth. It is asked with some appearance of116 reason, how this narrow current can be looked upon as the parent of that wide stream which is supposed to traverse the Atlantic with a mean width of some five or six hundred miles. Indeed, a much greater width has been assigned to it, though on mistaken grounds; for it has been remarked that since waifs and strays from the tropics are found upon the shores of Portugal, as well as upon those of Greenland, we must ascribe to the current a span equal to the enormous space separating these places. But the circumstance here dwelt upon can clearly be explained in another way. We know that of two pieces of wood thrown into the Thames at Richmond, one might be picked up at Putney, and the other at Gravesend. Yet we do not conclude that the width of the Thames is equal to the distance separating Putney from Gravesend. And doubtless the tropical waifs which have been picked up on the shores of Greenland and of Portugal have found their way thither11 by circuitous12 courses, and not by direct transmission along opposite edges of the great Gulf current.
But certainly the difficulty associated with the narrowness of the Bemini current is one deserving of careful attention. Are we free to identify a current six hundred miles in width with one which is but thirty miles wide, and not very deep? An increase of width certainly not less than thirtyfold would appear to correspond to a proportionate diminution13 of depth. And remembering that it is only near the middle of the Narrows that the Gulf Stream has a depth of four117 hundred yards, we could scarcely assign to the wide current in the mid-Atlantic a greater depth than ten or twelve yards. This depth seems altogether out of proportion to the enormous lateral14 extension of the current.
But besides that even this consideration would not suffice to disprove the existence of a current in the mid-Atlantic, an important circumstance remains15 to be mentioned. The current in the Narrows flows with great velocity16,—certainly not less than four or five miles an hour. As the current grows wider it flows more sedately17; and opposite Cape18 Hatteras its velocity is already reduced to little more than three miles an hour. In the mid-Atlantic the current may be assumed to flow at a rate little exceeding a mile per hour, at the outside. Here, then, we have a circumstance which suffices to remove a large part of the difficulty arising from the narrowness of the Bemini current, and we can at once increase our estimate of the depth of the mid-Atlantic current fivefold.
But this is not all. It has long been understood that the current which passes out through the Narrows of Bemini corresponds to the portion of the great equatorial current which passes into the Gulf of Mexico between the West Indian Islands. We cannot doubt that the barrier formed by those islands serves to divert a large portion of the equatorial current. The portion thus diverted finds its way, we may assume, along the outside of the West Indian Archipelago, and thus joins the other portion—which has in the118 meantime made the circuit of the Gulf—as it issues from the Bemini Straits. All the maps in which the Atlantic currents are depicted19 present precisely20 such an outside current as I have here spoken of, and most of them assign to it a width exceeding that of the Bemini current. Indeed, were it not for the doubts which the recent discussions have thrown upon all the currents charted by seamen21, I should have been content to point to this outside current as shown in the maps. As it is, I have thought is necessary to show that such a current must necessarily have an existence, since we cannot lose sight of the influence of the West Indian Isles22 in partially23 damming up the passage along which the equatorial current would otherwise find its way into the Gulf of Mexico. Whatever portion of the great current is thus diverted must find a passage elsewhere, and no passage exists for it save along the outside of the West Indian Isles.
The possibility that the wide current which has been assumed to traverse the mid-Atlantic may be associated with the waters which flow from the Gulf of Mexico, either through the Narrows or round the outside of the barrier formed by the West Indies, has thus been satisfactorily established. But we now have to consider difficulties which have been supposed to encounter our current on its passage from the Gulf to the mid-Atlantic.
Northwards, along the shores of the United States, the current has been traced by the singular blueness of its waters until it has reached the neighbourhood119 of Newfoundland. Over a part of this course, indeed, the waters of the current are of indigo25 blue, and so clearly marked that their line of junction26 with the ordinary sea-water can be traced by the eye. ‘Often,’ says Captain Maury, ‘one half of a vessel27 may be perceived floating in Gulf Stream water, while the other half is in common water of the sea—so sharp is the line, and such the want of affinity28 between the waters, and such, too, the reluctance29, so to speak, on the part of those of the Gulf Stream, to mingle30 with the littoral31 waters of the sea.’
But it is now denied that there is any current beyond the neighbourhood of Newfoundland—or that the warm temperature, which has characterised the waters of the current up to this point, can be detected farther out.
It is first noticed that, as the Gulf current must reach the neighbourhood of Newfoundland with a north-easterly motion, and, if it ever reached the shores of the British Isles, would have to travel thither with an almost due easterly motion, there is a change of direction to be accounted for. This, however, is an old, and I had supposed exploded, fallacy. The course of the Gulf Stream from the Bemini Straits to the British Isles corresponds exactly with that which is due to the combined effects of the motion of the water and that of the earth upon its axis32. Florida being much nearer than Ireland to the equator, has a much more rapid easterly motion. Therefore, as the current gets farther and farther north, the effect of the easterly120 motion thus imparted to it begins to show itself more and more, until the current is gradually changed from a north-easterly to an almost easterly stream. The process is the exact converse33 of that by which the air-currents from the north gradually change into the north-westerly trade-winds as they get farther south.
But it is further remarked that as the current passes out beyond the shelter of Newfoundland, it is impinged upon by those cold currents from the arctic seas which are known to be continually flowing out of Baffin’s Bay and down the eastern shores of Greenland; and it is contended that these currents suffice, not merely to break up the Gulf current, but so to cool its waters that these could produce no effect upon the climate of Great Britain if they ever reached its neighbourhood.
Here, again, I must remark that we are dealing with no new discovery. Captain Maury has already remarked upon this peculiarity35. ‘At the very season of the year,’ he says, ‘when the Gulf Stream is rushing in greatest volume through the Straits of Florida, and hastening to the north with the greatest rapidity, there is a cold stream from Baffin’s Bay, Labrador, and the coasts of the north, running south with equal velocity.... One part of it underruns the Gulf Stream, as is shown by the icebergs36, which are carried in a direction tending across its course.’ There can be no doubt, in fact, that this last circumstance indicates the manner in which the main contest between the two currents is settled. A portion of the arctic current finds its way between the Gulf Stream and the continent of121 America; and this portion, though narrow, has a very remarkable effect in increasing the coldness of the American winters. But the main part, (heavier, by reason of its coldness, than the surrounding water,) sinks beneath the surface. And the well-known fact mentioned by Maury, that icebergs have been seen stemming the Gulf Stream, suffices to show how comparatively shallow that current is at this distance from its source, and thus aids to remove a difficulty which we have already had occasion to deal with.
Doubtless the cooling influence of the arctic currents is appreciable37; but it would be a mistake to suppose that this influence can suffice to deprive the Gulf current of its distinctive38 warmth. If all the effect of the cold current were operative on the Gulf Stream alone we might suppose that, despite the enormous quantity of comparatively warm water which is continually being carried northwards, the current would be reduced to the temperature of the surrounding water. But this is not so. The arctic current not only cools the Gulf current, but the surrounding water also—possibly to a greater extent, for it is commonly supposed that a bed of ordinary sea-water separates the two main currents from each other. Thus the characteristic difference of temperature remains unaffected. But in reality we may assume that the cooling effect actually exercised by the arctic current upon the neighbouring sea is altogether disproportionate to the immense amount of heat continually being carried northwards by the Gulf Stream. It is astonishing how122 unreadily two sea-currents exchange their temperatures—to use a somewhat inexact mode of expression. The very fact that the littoral current of the United States is so cold—a fact thoroughly40 established—shows how little warmth this current has drawn41 from the neighbouring seas. Another fact, mentioned by Captain Maury, bears in a very interesting manner upon this peculiarity. He says: ‘If any vessel will take up her position a little to the northward24 of Bermuda, and steering42 thence for the capes43 of Virginia, will try the water-thermometer all the way at short intervals44, she will find its reading to be now higher, now lower; and the observer will discover that he has been crossing streak45 after streak of warm and cool water in regular alternations.’ Each portion maintains its own temperature, even in the case of such warm streaks46 as these, all belonging to one current.
Similar considerations dispose of the arguments which have been founded on the temperature of the sea-bottom. It has been proved that the living creatures which people the lower depths of the sea exist under circumstances which evidence a perfect uniformity of temperature; and arguments on the subject of the Gulf Stream have been derived47 from the evidence of what is termed a minimum thermometer—that is, a thermometer which will indicate the lowest temperature it has been exposed to—let down into the depths of the sea. All such arguments, whether adduced against or in favour of the Gulf Stream theory, must be held,123 to be futile48, since the thermometer in its descent may pass through several submarine currents of different temperature.
Lastly, an argument has been urged against the warming effects of the Gulf Stream upon our climate which requires to be considered with some attention. It is urged that the warmth derived from so shallow a current as the Gulf Stream must be, by the time it has reached our shores, could not provide an amount of heat sufficient to affect our climate to any appreciable extent. The mere34 neighbourhood of this water at a temperature slightly higher than that due to the latitude49 could not, it is urged, affect the temperature of the inland counties at all.
This argument is founded on a misapprehension of the beautiful arrangement by which Nature carries heat from one region to distribute it over another. Over the surface of the whole current the process of evaporation50 is going on at a greater rate than over the neighbouring seas, because the waters of the current are warmer than those which surround them. The vapour thus rising above the Gulf Stream is presently wafted51 by the south-westerly winds to our shores and over our whole land. But as it thus reaches a region of comparative cold, the vapour is condensed—that is, turned into fog, or mist, or cloud, according to circumstances. It is during this change that it gives out the heat it has brought with it from the Gulf Stream. For precisely as the evaporation of water is a process124 requiring heat, the change of vapour into water—whether in the form of fog, mist, cloud, or rain—is a process in which heat is given out. Thus it is that the south-westerly wind, the commonest wind we have, brings clouds and fogs and rain to us from the Gulf Stream, and with them brings the Gulf Stream warmth.
Why the south-westerly winds should be so common, and how it is that over the Gulf Stream there is a sort of air-channel along which winds come to us as if by their natural pathway, are matters inquired into farther on (see p. 164). The subject is full of interest, but need not here detain us.
It would seem that a mechanism52 involving the motion of such enormous masses of water as the current-system of the Atlantic should depend on the operation of very evident laws. Yet a variety of contradictory53 hypotheses have been put forward from time to time respecting this system of circulation, and even now the scientific world is divided between two opposing theories.
Of old the Mississippi River was supposed to be the parent of the Gulf Stream. It was noticed that the current flows at about the same rate as the Mississippi, and this fact was considered sufficient to support the strange theory that a river can give birth to an ocean-current.
It was easy, however, to overthrow54 this theory. Captain Livingston showed that the volume of water which is poured out of the Gulf of Mexico in the form of an ocean stream is more than a thousand times125 greater than the volume poured into the Gulf by the Mississippi River.
Having overthrown55 this old theory of the Gulf Stream, Captain Livingston attempted to set up one which is equally unfounded. He ascribed the current to the sun’s apparent yearly motion and the influence thus exerted on the waters of the Atlantic. A sort of yearly tide is conceived, according to this theory, to be the true parent of the Gulf current. It need hardly be said, however, that a phenomenon which remains without change through the winter and summer seasons cannot possibly be referred to the operation of such a cause as a yearly tide.
It is to Dr. Franklin that we owe the first theory of the Gulf Stream which has met with general acceptance. He held that the Gulf Stream is formed by the outflow of waters which have been forced into the Caribbean Sea by the trade-winds; so that the pressure of these winds on the Atlantic Ocean forms, according to Dr. Franklin, the true motive56 power of the Gulf Stream machinery57. According to Maury, this theory has ‘come to be the most generally received opinion in the mind of seafaring people.’ It supplies a moving force of undoubted efficiency. We know that as the trade-winds travel towards the equator they lose their westerly motion. It is reasonable to suppose that this is caused by friction58 against the surface of the ocean, to which, therefore, a corresponding westerly motion must have been imparted.
There is a simplicity59 about Franklin’s theory which126 commends it favourably60 to consideration. But when we examine it somewhat more closely, several very decided61 flaws present themselves to our attention.
Consider, in the first place, the enormous mass of water moved by the supposed agency of the winds. Air has a weight—volume for volume—which is less than one eight-hundredth part of that of water. So that, to create a water-current, an air-current more than eight hundred times as large and of equal velocity must expend62 the whole of its motion. Now the trade-winds are gentle winds, their velocity scarcely exceeding in general that of the more swiftly-moving portions of the Gulf Stream. But even assigning to them a velocity four times as great, we still want an air-current two hundred times as large as the water-current. And the former must give up the whole of its motion, which, in the case of so elastic63 a substance as air, would hardly happen, the upper air being unlikely to be much affected39 by the motion of the lower.
But this is far from being all. If the trade-winds blew throughout the year, we might be disposed to recognise their influence upon the Gulf Stream as a paramount64, if not the sole one. But this is not the case. Captain Maury states that, ‘With the view of ascertaining65 the average number of days during the year that the north-east trade-winds of the Atlantic operate upon the currents between twenty-five degrees north latitude and the equator, log-books containing no less than 380,284 observations on the force and direction of the wind in that ocean were examined. The data127 thus afforded were carefully compared and discussed. The results show that within these latitudes—and on the average—the wind from the north-east is in excess of the winds from the south-west only 111 days out of the 365. Now, can the north-east trades,‘ he pertinently66 asks, ‘by blowing for less than one-third of the time, cause the Gulf Stream to run all the time, and without varying its velocity either to their force or to their prevalence?’
And besides this, we have to consider that no part of the Gulf Stream flows strictly67 before the trade-winds. Where the current flows most rapidly, namely, in the Narrows of Bemini, it sets against the wind, and for hundreds of miles after it enters the Atlantic ‘it runs,’ says Maury, ‘right in the “wind’s eye.128”‘ It must be remembered that a current of air directed with considerable force against the surface of still water has not the power of generating a current which can force its way far through the resisting fluid. If this were so, we might understand how the current, originating in sub-tropical regions, could force its way onward after the moving force had ceased to act upon it, and even carry its waters right against the wind, after leaving the Gulf of Mexico. But experience is wholly opposed to this view. The most energetic currents are quickly dispersed68 when they reach a wide expanse of still water. For example, the Niagara below the falls is an immense and rapid river. Yet when it reaches Lake Ontario, ‘instead of preserving its character as a distinct and well-defined stream for several hundred miles, it spreads itself out, and its waters are immediately lost in those of the lake.’ Here, again, the question asked by Maury bears pertinently on the subject we are considering. ‘Why,’ he says, ‘should not the Gulf Stream do the same? It gradually enlarges itself, it is true; but, instead of mingling70 with the ocean by broad spreading, as the immense rivers descending71 into the northern lakes do, its waters, like a stream of oil in the ocean, preserve a distinctive character for more than three thousand miles.’
The only other theory which has been considered in recent times to account satisfactorily for all the features of the Gulf Stream mechanism was put forward, we believe, by Captain Maury. In this theory, the motive power of the whole system of oceanic circulation is held to be the action of the sun’s heat upon the waters of the sea. We recognise two contrary effects as the immediate69 results of the sun’s action. In the first place, by warming the equatorial waters, it tends to make them lighter72; in the second place, by causing evaporation, it renders them salter, and so tends to make them heavier. We have to inquire which form of action is most effective. The inquiry73 would be somewhat difficult, if we had not the evidence of the sea itself to supply an answer. For it is an inquiry to which ordinary experimental processes would not be applicable. We must accept the fact that the heated water from the equatorial seas actually does float upon the cooler portions of the Atlantic, as129 evidence that the action of the sun results in making the water lighter.
Now, Maury says that the water thus lightened must flow over and form a surface-current towards the Poles; while the cold and heavy water from the polar seas, as soon as it reaches the temperate74 zone, must sink and form a submarine current. He recognises in these facts the mainspring of the whole system of oceanic circulation. If a long trough be divided into two compartments75, and we fill one with oil and the other with water, and then remove the dividing plate, we shall see the oil rushing over the water at one end of the trough, and the water rushing under the oil at the other. And if we further conceive that oil is continually being added at that end of the trough originally filled with oil, while water is continually added at the other, it is clear that the system of currents would continue in action: that is, there would be a continual flow of oil in one direction along the surface of the water, and of water in the contrary direction underneath76 the oil.
But Sir John Herschel maintains that no such effects as Maury describes could follow the action of the sun’s heat upon the equatorial waters. He argues thus: Granting that these waters become lighter and expand in volume, yet they can only move upwards77, downwards78, or sideways. There can be nothing to cause either of the two first forms of motion; and as for motion sideways, it can only result from the gradual slope caused by the bulging79 of the equatorial waters.130 He proceeds to show that this slope is so slight that we cannot look upon it as competent to form any sensible current from the equatorial towards the polar seas. And even if it could, he says, the water thus flowing off would have an eastward80 instead of a westward81 motion, precisely as the counter-trade-winds, blowing from equatorial to polar regions, have an eastward motion.
It is singular how completely the supporter of each rival view has succeeded in overthrowing82 the arguments of his opponent. Certainly Maury has shown with complete success that the inconstant trade-winds cannot account for the constant Gulf current, which does not even flow before them, but, in places, exactly against their force. And the reasoning of Sir John Herschel seems equally cogent83, for certainly the flow of water from equatorial towards polar regions ought from the first to have an eastward, instead of a westward motion; whereas the equatorial current, of which the Gulf Stream is but the continuation, flows from east to west, right across the Atlantic.
Equally strange is it to find that each of these eminent84 men, having read the arguments of the other, reasserts, but does not effectually defend, his own theory, and repeats with even more damaging effect his arguments against the rival view.
Yet one or other theory must at least point to the true view, for the Atlantic is subject to no other agencies which can for a moment be held to account for a phenomenon of such magnitude as the Gulf Stream.
131
It appears to me, that on a close examination of the Gulf Stream mechanism, the true mainspring of its motion can be recognised. Compelled to reject the theory that the trade-winds generate the equatorial current westward, let us consider whether Herschel’s arguments against the ‘heat theory’ may not suggest a hint for our guidance. He points out that an overflow85 from the equator polewards would result in an eastward, and not in a westward, current. This is true. It is equally true that a flow of water towards the equator would result in a westward current. But no such flow is observed. Is it possible that there may be such a flow, but that it takes place in a hidden manner? Clearly there may be. Submarine currents towards the equator would have precisely the kind of motion we require, and if any cause drew them to the surface near the equator, they would account in full for the great equatorial westward current.
At this point we begin to see that an important circumstance has been lost sight of in dealing with the heat theory. The action of the sun on the surface-water of the equatorial Atlantic has only been considered with reference to its warming effects. But we must not forget that this action has drying effects also. It evaporates enormous quantities of water, and we have to inquire whence the water comes by which the sea-level is maintained. A surface flow from the sub-tropical seas would suffice for this purpose, but no such flow is observed. Whence, then, can the water come but from below? Thus we recognise the fact that a132 process resembling suction is continually taking place over the whole area of the equatorial Atlantic, the agent being the intense heat of the tropical sun. No one can doubt that this agent is one of adequate power. Indeed, the winds, conceived by Franklin to be the primary cause of the Atlantic currents, are in reality due to the merest fraction of the energy inherent in the sun’s heat.
We have other evidence that the indraught is from below in the comparative coldness of the equatorial current. The Gulf Stream is warm by comparison with the surrounding waters, but the equatorial current is cooler than the tropical seas. According to Professor Ansted, the southern portion of the equatorial current, as it flows past Brazil, ‘is everywhere a cold current, generally from four to six degrees below the adjacent ocean.’
If we here recognise the mainspring of the Gulf Stream mechanism, or rather of the whole system of oceanic circulation-for the movements observed in the Atlantic have their exact counterpart in the Pacific—we shall have no difficulty in accounting86 for all the motions which that mechanism exhibits. We need no longer look upon the Gulf Stream as the rebound87 of the equatorial current from the shores of North America. Knowing that there is an underflow towards the equator, we see that there must be a surface-flow towards the Poles. And this flow must as inevitably88 result in an easterly motion as the underflow towards the equator results in a westerly motion. We have,133 indeed, the phenomena89 of the trades and counter-trades exhibited in water-currents instead of air-currents.
(From the St. Paul’s Magazine, September 1869.)
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gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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mitigating
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| v.减轻，缓和( mitigate的现在分词 ) | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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rehabilitated
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| 改造（罪犯等）( rehabilitate的过去式和过去分词 )； 使恢复正常生活； 使恢复原状； 修复 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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onward
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| adj.向前的，前进的；adv.向前，前进，在先 | |
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thither
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| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
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circuitous
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| adj.迂回的路的，迂曲的，绕行的 | |
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diminution
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| n.减少；变小 | |
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lateral
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| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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velocity
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| n.速度，速率 | |
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sedately
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| adv.镇静地，安详地 | |
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cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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depicted
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| 描绘，描画( depict的过去式和过去分词 )； 描述 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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seamen
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| n.海员 | |
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isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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northward
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| adv.向北；n.北方的地区 | |
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indigo
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| n.靛青，靛蓝 | |
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junction
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| n.连接，接合；交叉点，接合处，枢纽站 | |
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vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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affinity
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| n.亲和力，密切关系 | |
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reluctance
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| n.厌恶，讨厌，勉强，不情愿 | |
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mingle
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| vt.使混合，使相混；vi.混合起来；相交往 | |
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littoral
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| adj.海岸的；湖岸的；n.沿（海）岸地区 | |
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axis
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| n.轴，轴线，中心线；坐标轴，基准线 | |
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converse
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| vi.谈话，谈天，闲聊；adv.相反的，相反 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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icebergs
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| n.冰山，流冰( iceberg的名词复数 ) | |
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appreciable
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| adj.明显的，可见的，可估量的，可觉察的 | |
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distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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steering
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| n.操舵装置 | |
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capes
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| 碎谷； 斗篷( cape的名词复数 )； 披肩； 海角； 岬 | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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streak
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| n.条理，斑纹，倾向，少许，痕迹；v.加条纹，变成条纹，奔驰，快速移动 | |
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streaks
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| n.（与周围有所不同的）条纹( streak的名词复数 )；（通常指不好的）特征（倾向）；（不断经历成功或失败的）一段时期v.快速移动( streak的第三人称单数 )；使布满条纹 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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evaporation
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| n.蒸发，消失 | |
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wafted
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| v.吹送，飘送，（使）浮动( waft的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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contradictory
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| adj.反驳的，反对的，抗辩的；n.正反对，矛盾对立 | |
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overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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overthrown
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| adj. 打翻的，推倒的，倾覆的 动词overthrow的过去分词 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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friction
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| n.摩擦，摩擦力 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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favourably
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| adv. 善意地，赞成地 =favorably | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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expend
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| vt.花费，消费，消耗 | |
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elastic
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| n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的 | |
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paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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ascertaining
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的现在分词 ) | |
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pertinently
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| 适切地 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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dispersed
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| adj. 被驱散的, 被分散的, 散布的 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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mingling
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| adj.混合的 | |
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descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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lighter
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| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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temperate
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| adj.温和的，温带的，自我克制的，不过分的 | |
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compartments
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| n.间隔( compartment的名词复数 )；（列车车厢的）隔间；（家具或设备等的）分隔间；隔层 | |
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underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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bulging
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| 膨胀； 凸出（部）； 打气； 折皱 | |
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eastward
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| adv.向东；adj.向东的；n.东方，东部 | |
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westward
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| n.西方，西部；adj.西方的，向西的；adv.向西 | |
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overthrowing
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| v.打倒，推翻( overthrow的现在分词 )；使终止 | |
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cogent
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| adj.强有力的，有说服力的 | |
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eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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85
overflow
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| v.(使)外溢，(使)溢出；溢出，流出，漫出 | |
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accounting
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| n.会计，会计学，借贷对照表 | |
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rebound
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| v.弹回；n.弹回，跳回 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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