At first sight it may seem paradoxical to assert that earthquakes, fearfully destructive as they have so often proved, are yet essentially9 preservative10 and restorative phenomena11; yet this is strictly12 the case. Had no earthquakes taken place in old times, man would not now be living on the face of the earth; if no earthquakes were to take place in future, the term of man’s existence would be limited within a range of time far less than that to which it seems likely, in all probability, to be extended.
If the solid substance of the earth formed a perfect sphere in ante-geologic13 times—that is, in ages preceding those to which our present geologic studies extend—there can be no doubt that there was then no visible land above the surface of the water; the ocean must have formed a uniformly deep covering to the submerged surface of the solid globe. In this state of things, nothing but the earth’s subterranean forces could tend to the production of continents and islands. Let me be understood. I am not referring to the possibility or impossibility that lands and seas should suddenly have assumed their present213 figure without convulsion of any sort; this might have happened, since the Creator of all things can doubtless modify all things according to His will; I merely say that, assuming that in the beginning, as now, He permitted all things to work according to the laws He has appointed, then, undoubtedly14, the submerged earth must have risen above the sea by the action of those very forms of force which produce the earthquake in our own times.
However this may be, it is quite certain that when once continents and lands had been formed, there immediately began a struggle between destructive and restorative (rather, perhaps, than preservative) forces.
The great enemy of the land is water, and water works the destruction of the land in two principal ways.
In the first place the sea tends to destroy the land by beating on its shores, and thus continually washing it away. It may seem at first sight that this process must necessarily be a slow one; in fact, many may be disposed to say that it is certainly a slow process, since we see that it does not alter the forms of continents and islands perceptibly in long intervals15 of time. But, as a matter of fact, we have never had an opportunity of estimating the full effects of this cause, since its action is continually being checked by the restorative forces we shall presently have to consider. Were it not thus checked, there can be little doubt that its effects would be cumulative16; for the longer the process214 continued—that is, the more the land was beaten away—the higher would the sea rise, and the greater power would it have to effect the destruction of the remaining land.
I proceed to give a few instances of the sea’s power of effecting the rapid destruction of the land when nothing happens to interfere17 with the local action—premising, that this effect is altogether insignificant in comparison with that which would take place, even in that particular spot, if the sea’s action were everywhere left unchecked.
The Shetland Isles18 are composed of substances which seem, of all others, best fitted to resist the disintegrating20 forces of the sea—namely, granite21, gneiss, mica-slate, serpentine22, greenstone, and many other forms of rock: yet, exposed as these islands are to the uncontrolled violence of the Atlantic Ocean, they are undergoing a process of destruction which, even within historical times, has produced very noteworthy changes. ‘Steep cliffs are hollowed out,’ says Sir Charles Lyell, ‘into deep caves and lofty arches; and almost every promontory23 ends in a cluster of rocks imitating the forms of columns, pinnacles24, and obelisks25.’ Speaking of one of the islands of this group, Dr. Hibbert says:215 ‘The isle19 of Stennes presents a scene of unequalled desolation. In stormy winters, large blocks of stone are overturned, or are removed from their native beds, and hurried to a distance almost incredible. In the winter of 1802, a tabular mass, eight feet two inches by seven feet, and five feet one inch thick, was dislodged from its bed, and carried to a distance of from eighty to ninety feet. In other parts of the Shetland Isles, where the sea has encountered less solid materials, the work of destruction has proceeded yet more effectively. In Roeness, for example, the sea has wrought26 its way so fiercely that a large cavernous aperture27 250 feet long has been hollowed out. But the most sublime28 scene,’ says Dr. Hibbert, ‘is where a mural pile of porphyry, escaping the process of disintegration29 that is devastating30 the coast, appears to have been left as a sort of rampart against the inroads of the ocean. The Atlantic, when provoked by wintry gales31, batters32 against it with all the force of real artillery33; and the waves, in their repeated assaults, have at length forced for themselves an entrance. This breach34, named the Grind of the Navir, is widened every winter by the overwhelming surge that, finding a passage through it, separates large stones from its sides, and forces them to a distance of no less than 180 feet. In two or three spots, the fragments which have been detached are brought together in immense heaps, that appear as an accumulation of cubical masses, the product of some quarry35.’
Let us next turn to a portion of the coast-line of Great Britain which is neither defended, on the one hand, by barriers of rock, nor attacked, on the other, by the full fury of the Atlantic currents. Along the whole coast of Yorkshire we find evidences of a continual process of dilapidation36. Between the projecting216 headland of Flamborough and Spurn37 Point (the coast of Holderness) the waste is particularly rapid. Many spots, which are now mere sandbanks, are marked in the old maps of Yorkshire as the sites of ancient towns and villages. Speaking of Hyde (one of these), Pennant38 says: ‘Only the tradition is left of this town.’ Owthorne and its church have been for the most part destroyed, as also Auburn, Hartburn, and Kilnsea. Mr. Phillips, in his ‘Geology of Yorkshire,’ states that not unreasonable39 fears are entertained that, at some future time, Spurn Point itself will become an island, or be wholly washed away, and then the ocean, entering into the estuary40 of the Humber, will cause great devastation41. Pennant states that ‘several places, once towns of note upon the Humber, are now only recorded in history; and Ravensperg was at one time a rival of Hull42, and a port so very considerable in 1332, that Edward Baliol and the confederate English barons43 sailed from hence to invade Scotland; and Henry IV., in 1399, made choice of this port to land at, to effect the deposal of Richard II.; yet the whole of this has since been devoured44 by the merciless ocean; extensive sands, dry at low water, are to be seen in their stead.’ The same writer also describes Spurn Point as shaped like a sickle45, and the land to the north, he says, was ‘perpetually preyed46 on by the fury of the German Sea, which devours47 whole acres at a time.’
The decay of the shores of Norfolk and Suffolk is also remarkably48 rapid. Sir Charles Lyell relates some facts which throw an interesting light on the217 ravages49 which the sea commits upon the land here. It was computed50 that when a certain inn was built at Sherringham, seventy years would pass before the sea could reach the spot: ‘the mean loss of land being calculated from previous observations to be somewhat less than one yard annually52.’ But no allowance had been made for the fact that the ground sloped from the sea. In consequence of this peculiarity53, the waste became greater and greater every year as the cliff grew lower. ‘Between the years 1824 and 1829, no less than seventeen yards were swept away;’ and when Sir Charles Lyell saw the place, only a small garden was left between the building and the sea. I need hardly add that all vestiges54 of the inn have long since disappeared. Lyell also relates that, in 1829, there was a depth of water sufficient to float a frigate56 at a point where, less than half a century before, there stood a cliff fifty feet high with houses upon it.
I have selected these portions of the coast of Great Britain, not because the destruction of our shores is greater here than elsewhere, but as serving to illustrate57 processes of waste and demolition58 which are going on around all the shores, not merely of Great Britain, but of every country on the face of the earth. Here and there, as I have said, there are instances in which a contrary process seems to be in action. Low-lying banks and shoals are formed—sometimes along stretches of coast extending for a considerable distance. But when we consider these formations closely, we find that they rather afford evidence of the energy of the218 destructive forces to which the land is subject than promise to make up for the land which has been swept away. In the first place, every part of these banks consists of the debris59 of other coasts. Now we cannot doubt that of earth which is washed away from our shores, by far the larger part finds its way to the bottom of the deep seas; a small proportion only can be brought (by some peculiarity in the distribution of ocean-currents, or in the progress of the tidal wave) to aid in the formation of shoals and banks. The larger, therefore, such shoals and banks may be, the larger must be the amount of land which has been washed away never to reappear. And although banks and shoals of this sort grow year by year larger and larger, yet (unless added to artificially) they continue always either beneath the surface of the water in the case of shoals, or but very slightly raised above the surface. Now, if we suppose the destruction of land to proceed unchecked, it is manifest that at some period, however remote, the formation of shoals and banks must come to an end, owing to the continual diminution60 of the land from the demolition of which they derive61 their substance. In the meantime, the bed of the sea would be continually filling up, the level of the sea would be continually rising, and thus the banks would be either wholly submerged through the effect of this cause alone, or they would have so slight an elevation62 above the sea-level that they would offer little resistance to the destructive effects of the sea, which would then have no other land to act upon.
219
But we have yet to consider the second principal cause of the wasting away of the land. The cause we have just been dealing63 with acts upon the shores or outlines of islands and continents; the one we have now to consider acts upon their interior. Many, perhaps, would hardly suppose that the fall of rain upon the land could have any appreciable64 influence in the demolition of continents; but, as a matter of fact, there are few causes to which geologists65 attribute more importance. The very fact that enormous deltas67 have been formed at the mouths of many rivers—in other words, the actual growth of continents through the effects of rainfall—is a proof how largely this cause must tend to destroy and disintegrate68 the interiors of our continents. Dwelling69 on this point, Sir Charles Lyell presents the following remarkable70 illustration: ‘During a tour in Spain,’ he writes,220 ‘I was surprised to see a district of gently undulating ground in Catalonia, consisting of red and grey sandstone, and in some parts of red marl, almost entirely71 denuded72 of herbage; while the roots of the pines, holm oaks, and some other trees, were half exposed, as if the soil had been washed away by a flood. Such is the state of the forests, for example, between Oristo and Vich, and near San Lorenzo. But being overtaken by a violent thunderstorm in the month of August, I saw the whole surface, even the highest levels of some flat-topped hills, streaming with mud, while on every declivity73 the devastation of torrents74 was terrific. The peculiarities75 in the physiognomy of the district were at once explained; and I was taught that, in speculating on the greater effects which the direct action of rain may once have produced on the surface of certain parts of England, we need not revert76 to periods when the heat of the climate was tropical.’
Combining the effects of the sea’s action upon the shores of continents, and of the action of rain upon their interior, and remembering that unless the process of demolition were checked in some way, each cause would act from year to year with new force—one through the effects of the gradual rise of the sea-bed, and the other through the effects of the gradual increase of the surface of ocean exposed to the vaporising action of the sun, which increase would necessarily increase the quantity of rain yearly precipitated77 on the land—we see the justice of the opinion expressed by Sir John Herschel, that, ‘had the primeval world been constructed as it now exists, time enough has elapsed, and force enough directed to that end has been in activity, to have long ago destroyed every vestige55 of land.’
We see, then, the necessity that exists for the action of some restorative or preservative force sufficient to counteract78 the effects of the continuous processes of destruction indicated above. If we consider, we shall see that the destructive forces owe their efficiency to their levelling action, that is, to their influence in reducing the solid part of the earth to the figure of a perfect sphere; therefore the form of force which is required to counteract them is one that shall tend to produce irregularities in the surface-contour of221 the earth. And it will be remarked, that although upheaval79 is the process which appears at first sight to be the only effectual remedy to the levelling action of rains and ocean-currents, yet the forcible depression of the earth’s surface may prove in many instances yet more effective, since it may serve to reduce the sea-level in other places.
Now, the earth’s subterranean forces serve to produce the very effects which are required in order to counteract the continual disintegration of the shores and interior parts of continents. In the first place, their action is not distributed with any approach to uniformity over different parts of the earth’s crust, and therefore the figure they tend to give to the surface of that crust is not that of a perfect sphere. This, of itself, secures the uprising of some parts of the solid earth above the sea-level. But this is not all. On a comparison of the various effects due to the action of subterranean forces, it has been found that the forces of upheaval act (on the whole) more powerfully under continents, and especially under the shore-lines of continents, while the forces of depression act most powerfully (on the whole) under the bed of the ocean. It need hardly be said that whenever the earth is upheaved in one part, it must be depressed80 somewhere else. Not necessarily at the same instant, it should be remarked. The process of upheaval may be either momentarily accompanied by a corresponding process of depression, or the latter process may take place by a gradual action of the elastic81 powers of the earth’s crust; but, in one way222 or the other, the balance between upheaval and depression must be restored. Hence, if it can be shown that for the most part the forces of upheaval act underneath82 the land, it follows—though we may not be able to recognise the fact by obvious visible signs—that processes of depression are taking place underneath the ocean. Now, active volcanoes mark the centre of a district of upheaval, and most volcanoes are near the sea, as if (though, of course, this is not the true explanation) Nature had provided against the inroads of the ocean by seating the earth’s upheaving forces just where they are most wanted.
Even in earthquake districts which have no active vent51, the same law is found to prevail. It is supposed by the most eminent83 seismologists that earthquake regions around a volcano, and earthquake regions apparently84 disconnected from any outlet85, differ only in this respect, that in the one case the subterranean forces have had sufficient power to produce the phenomena of eruption86, while in the other they have not. ‘In earthquakes,’ says Humboldt, ‘we have evidence of a volcano-producing force; but such a force, as universally diffused87 as the internal heat of the globe, and proclaiming itself everywhere, rarely acts with sufficient energy to produce actual eruptive phenomena; and when it does so, it is only in isolated88 and particular places.’
Of the influence of the earth’s subterranean forces in altering the level of land, I might quote many remarkable instances, but considerations of space compel me to confine myself to two or three. The slow processes of upheaval or depression may, perhaps, seem223 less immediately referable to subterranean action than those which are produced during the progress of an actual earthquake. I pass over, therefore, such phenomena as the gradual uprising of Sweden, the slow sinking of Greenland, and (still proceeding89 westward) the gradual uprising of Nova Scotia and the shores of Hudson’s Bay. Remarkable and suggestive as these phenomena really are, and indisputable as the evidence is on which they rest, they will probably seem much less striking to the reader than those which I am now about to quote.
On the 19th of November, 1822, a widely felt and destructive earthquake was experienced in Chili90. On the next day, it was noticed for the first time that a broad line of sea-coast had been deserted91 by the sea for more than one hundred miles. A large part of this tract92 was covered by shell-fish, which soon died, and exhaled93 the most offensive effluvia. Between the old low-water mark and the new one, the fishermen found burrowing94 shells, which they had formerly95 had to search for amidst the surf. Rocks some way out to sea which had formerly been covered, were now dry at half ebb-tide.
Careful measurements showed that the rise of the land was greater at some distance inshore than along the beach. The watercourse of a mill about a mile inland from the sea had gained a fall of fourteen inches in little more than a hundred yards. At Valparaiso, the rise was three feet; at Quintero, four feet.
In February 1835, and in November 1837, a large224 tract of Chili was similarly shaken, a permanent rise of two feet following the former earthquake, and a rise of eight feet the latter.
The earthquake which took place at Cutch in 1819 is perhaps in some respects yet more remarkable. In this instance, phenomena of subsidence, as well as phenomena of upheaval, were witnessed. The estuary of the Indus, which had long been closed to navigation—being, in fact, only a foot deep at ebb-tide, and never more than six feet at flood—was deepened in parts to more than eighteen feet at low water. The fort and village of Sindree were submerged, only the tops of houses and walls being visible above the water. But although this earthquake seemed thus to have a land-destroying, instead of a land-creating effect, yet the instances of upheaval were, even in this case, far more remarkable than those of depression. ‘Immediately after the shock,’ says Sir Charles Lyell, ‘the inhabitants of Sindree saw at a distance of five miles and a half from their village a long elevated mound96, where previously97 there had been a low and perfectly98 level plain. To this uplifted tract they gave the name of Ulla-Bund, or the “Mound of God,” to distinguish it from several artificial dams previously thrown across the eastern arm of the Indus. It has been ascertained99,’ he adds, ‘that this new-raised country is upwards100 of fifty miles in length from east to west, running parallel to the line of subsidence which caused the grounds around Sindree to be flooded. The breadth of the elevation is conjectured101 to be in some parts sixteen miles,225 and its greatest ascertained height above the original level of the delta66 is ten feet—an elevation which appears to the eye to be very uniform throughout.‘
(From Chambers’s Journal, November 7, 1868.)
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1
vibration
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| n.颤动，振动；摆动 | |
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insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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sterling
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| adj.英币的(纯粹的，货真价实的)；n.英国货币(英镑) | |
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catastrophe
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| n.大灾难，大祸 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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subterranean
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| adj.地下的，地表下的 | |
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crumble
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| vi.碎裂，崩溃；vt.弄碎，摧毁 | |
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shuddering
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| v.战栗( shudder的现在分词 )；发抖；（机器、车辆等）突然震动；颤动 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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preservative
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| n.防腐剂；防腐料；保护料；预防药 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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geologic
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| adj.地质的 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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cumulative
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| adj.累积的，渐增的 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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isle
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| n.小岛，岛 | |
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disintegrating
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| v.（使）破裂[分裂，粉碎]，（使）崩溃( disintegrate的现在分词 ) | |
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granite
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| adj.花岗岩，花岗石 | |
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serpentine
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| adj.蜿蜒的，弯曲的 | |
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promontory
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| n.海角；岬 | |
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pinnacles
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| 顶峰( pinnacle的名词复数 )； 顶点； 尖顶； 小尖塔 | |
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obelisks
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wrought
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aperture
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sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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disintegration
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| n.分散，解体 | |
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devastating
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| adj.毁灭性的，令人震惊的，强有力的 | |
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gales
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| 龙猫 | |
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batters
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| n.面糊（煎料）( batter的名词复数 )；面糊（用于做糕饼）；（ 棒球） 正在击球的球员；击球员v.连续猛击( batter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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quarry
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| n.采石场；v.采石；费力地找 | |
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dilapidation
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| n.倒塌；毁坏 | |
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spurn
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| v.拒绝，摈弃；n.轻视的拒绝；踢开 | |
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pennant
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| n.三角旗；锦标旗 | |
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unreasonable
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| adj.不讲道理的，不合情理的，过度的 | |
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estuary
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| n.河口，江口 | |
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devastation
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| n.毁坏；荒废；极度震惊或悲伤 | |
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hull
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| n.船身；(果、实等的)外壳；vt.去(谷物等)壳 | |
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barons
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| 男爵( baron的名词复数 )； 巨头； 大王； 大亨 | |
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devoured
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| 吞没( devour的过去式和过去分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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sickle
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| n.镰刀 | |
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preyed
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| v.掠食( prey的过去式和过去分词 )；掠食；折磨；（人）靠欺诈为生 | |
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devours
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| 吞没( devour的第三人称单数 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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computed
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| adj.[医]计算的，使用计算机的v.计算，估算( compute的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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vent
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| n.通风口，排放口；开衩；vt.表达，发泄 | |
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annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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vestiges
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| 残余部分( vestige的名词复数 )； 遗迹； 痕迹； 毫不 | |
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vestige
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| n.痕迹，遗迹，残余 | |
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frigate
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| n.护航舰，大型驱逐舰 | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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demolition
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| n.破坏,毁坏,毁坏之遗迹 | |
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debris
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| n.瓦砾堆，废墟，碎片 | |
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diminution
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| n.减少；变小 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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appreciable
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| adj.明显的，可见的，可估量的，可觉察的 | |
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geologists
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| 地质学家，地质学者( geologist的名词复数 ) | |
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delta
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| n.（流的）角洲 | |
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deltas
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| 希腊字母表中第四个字母( delta的名词复数 )； （河口的）三角洲 | |
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disintegrate
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| v.瓦解，解体，（使）碎裂，（使）粉碎 | |
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dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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denuded
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| adj.[医]变光的，裸露的v.使赤裸( denude的过去式和过去分词 )；剥光覆盖物 | |
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declivity
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| n.下坡，倾斜面 | |
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torrents
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| n.倾注；奔流( torrent的名词复数 )；急流；爆发；连续不断 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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revert
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| v.恢复，复归，回到 | |
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precipitated
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| v.（突如其来地）使发生( precipitate的过去式和过去分词 )；促成；猛然摔下；使沉淀 | |
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counteract
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| vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消 | |
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upheaval
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| n.胀起，(地壳)的隆起；剧变，动乱 | |
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depressed
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| adj.沮丧的，抑郁的，不景气的，萧条的 | |
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elastic
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| n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的 | |
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underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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outlet
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| n.出口/路；销路；批发商店；通风口；发泄 | |
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eruption
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| n.火山爆发；（战争等）爆发；（疾病等）发作 | |
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diffused
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| 散布的，普及的，扩散的 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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chili
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| n.辣椒 | |
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deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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tract
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| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
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exhaled
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| v.呼出，发散出( exhale的过去式和过去分词 )；吐出（肺中的空气、烟等），呼气 | |
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burrowing
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| v.挖掘（洞穴），挖洞( burrow的现在分词 )；翻寻 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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mound
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| n.土墩，堤，小山；v.筑堤，用土堆防卫 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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conjectured
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| 推测，猜测，猜想( conjecture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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