"Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night:
God said, Let Newton be! and all was Light."
But Newton, who probably knew as much about his work as Pope, was of another opinion. Every one knows how he compared himself to a child who had picked up a few shells on the shore, while the ocean of truth lay unexplored before him. He has, however, spoken definitely of the great discovery which has rendered his name illustrious, in terms which show that he did not find that all was light. Among the questions which he specially3 would have had answered, amongst the secrets of nature concealed4 beneath the ocean of truth, the mystery of gravity was probably the chief. When Newton asked of the Ocean of Truth what Mrs. Hemans later said, and in another sense, of the natural sea—
"What hidest thou in thy treasure-caves and cells,
Thou hollow-sounding and mysterious main?"
he had in his thoughts the very power which he is commonly supposed to have explained, but which was in truth for him, more than for any man that had ever lived, the mystery of mysteries.
It may be well to consider the very words of the great philosopher, so far at least as our more diffuse5 language can present the concise6 expressions of the original Latin:
"Hitherto we have explained," he says, "the phenomena7 of the heavens and of our sea by the power of gravity, but have not yet assigned the cause of this power. This is certain" (we must hearken attentively8 here, for when a man like Newton speaks of aught as certain, we have sure ground to go upon),—"this is certain, that it must proceed from a cause that penetrates9 to the very centres of the sun and planets, without suffering the least diminution10 of its forces; that operates, not according to the quantity of surfaces of particles on which it acts (as mechanical causes usually do), but according to the quantity of the solid matter which they contain, and propagates its virtue11 on all sides to immense distances, decreasing always as the squares of the distances. Gravitation towards the sun is made up of the gravitations towards the several particles of which the body of the sun is composed, and in receding12 from the sun decreases accurately13 as the square of the distances as far as the path of Saturn14..., nay15, and even to the remotest parts of the paths of comets.... But hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena; and I frame no hypotheses:[4] for, whatever is not deduced from phenomena is to be called an hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, whether of occult qualities or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy.... To us it is enough that gravity does really exist, and act according to the laws which we have explained, and abundantly serves to account for all the motions of the celestial16 bodies and of our sea."
"Hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause of the properties of gravity." Such is the simple statement of the man who discovered those properties.
And now let us inquire a little into this law of gravity, not with the hope of explaining this great mystery of nature,—though, for my own part, I believe that the time is not far distant when the progress of discovery will enable man to make this approach towards the mystery of mysteries,—but in order to recognise the real nature of the mystery, which is a very different thing from explaining it.
In the first place the study of gravity brings us at once to the consideration of the infinitely17 minute,—at least of what is for us practically infinite in its minuteness. If we consider the above quotation18 attentively, we perceive that this quality of gravity was recognised by Newton. "It is not the quantity of the surfaces of particles," he says, "but the quantity of solid matter which they contain," that gives to gravity its power. Gravity resides in the ultimate particles of matter. We cannot conceive of matter so divided, no matter how finely, that non-gravitating particles could be separated from gravitating particles. Without entering into the question what atoms are, we perceive that these ultimate constituents19 of matter must contain, each according to the quantity of matter in it, the gravitating energy. Only, observe how incongruously we are compelled to speak. (It is always so when we deal with the infinite, whether the infinitely great or the infinitely minute.) We are speaking of atoms as the ultimate constituents of matter, and yet we are compelled, in describing their gravitating energy, to speak of the quantity of matter contained in each atom,—in other words, we speak in the same breath of an atom as not admitting of being divided or diminished, and of its containing matter by quantity, that is, by more or less. May we not, however, reasonably accept both views? The reasoning is sound by which science has proved that, so far as our material universe is concerned, there is a limit beyond which the division of matter cannot be supposed to go,—insomuch that Sir W. Thomson has indicated the actual limits of size of the atoms composing matter. Yet, passing in imagination beyond the bounds of our visible universe, and so entering into the next order of universe below it (in scale of construction),—the ether of space,—the atoms of our universe may be infinitely divisible in that universe, may be, in fact, compared with its particles, as the suns and worlds of our universe are to our atoms and molecules20.
But while gravity thus draws us to the contemplation of the infinitely minute, it also leads us to the consideration of what is for us the infinitely vast.
Newton was only able to speak confidently of the action of gravity at the distance of Saturn, the remotest planet known in his day. He did, indeed, refer to the comets as probably obeying, even in the remotest parts of their paths, the force of the sun's gravity; but he could not be certain on that point, because in his time no comet had been proved to travel back to the sun after receding to the remotest portion of its track. We now know not only that the sun's attraction extends to the farthest parts of the solar system, having thus a domain21 in space nearly thirty times larger than the sphere of Saturn, but we perceive that many among the stars exert a similar force; for around them travel other stars even as the planets travel around the sun. Thus we know that gravity is exerted in regions lying hundreds of thousands of times farther from the sun than Saturn is. We have, indeed, every reason to believe, not only that star unto star extendeth this mysterious attractive influence, but that the least particle in the inmost depths of sun or world exerts in full force on each particle, even of suns lying millions of times beyond the range of the most powerful telescope yet constructed by man, the full energy corresponding (i.) to the quantity of matter in itself and such particle, and (ii.) to the distance separating each from each.
This is amazing enough; but there is something more perplexing and mysterious in gravity even than this. Not only does gravity lead us to consider the infinitely minute in space on the one hand, and the infinitely vast in space on the other, but also it leads us to consider the infinitely minute and the infinitely vast in time also, and this in such a way as to suggest a difficulty which, as yet, no man has been able to solve.
Light travels, as we know, with a velocity22 so enormous, that, by comparison with it, all the velocities23 we are familiar with seem absolutely as rest. But gravity acts so quickly that even the velocity of light becomes as rest by comparison with the velocity of the propagation of gravity. Laplace had occasion, now nearly a century ago, to inquire whether a certain change in the moon's motion, by which she seemed to be gradually hastening her motion round the earth, might not be caused by the circumstance that gravity requires time for its action to be propagated over great distances. He found that if the whole of that change had to be explained in this way, which would be giving to gravity the slowest admissible rate of transmission, the velocity with which gravity is propagated would be eight million times greater than the velocity of light. If, on the other hand, that change in the moon's motion could be satisfactorily explained in some other way, then the velocity of gravity must be at least 16,000,000 times greater than the velocity of light. He himself soon after discovered what was in his day regarded as a complete explanation of the hastening of the moon's motion; and though in our own time Adams of Cambridge has shewn that only half the hastening can be accounted for by Laplace's reasoning, the general explanation of the remaining half is that it is not a real hastening of the moon, but is only an apparent hastening caused by the gradual slowing of the earth's rate of turning on her axis24. This makes the day by which we measure the moon's motion seem longer (very slightly, however).[5] Supposing, however, half the moon's hastening were left unexplained, and that the non-instantaneous transmission of gravity were the only way of accounting25 for it, even then it would be certain that gravity is propagated at a rate exceeding 12,000,000 times the velocity of light.
Indeed, at present, owing to the more exact observations available, and the greater range of time over which they extend, it may safely be said that the rate of propagation of gravity is far greater than this. It is even held by some that gravity acts instantaneously over any distance, however vast.
Fig26. 6.
Although I cannot here indicate the exact nature of the reasoning by which the enormous rapidity of the action of gravity is inferred, I must briefly27 indicate the general argument, that the reader may not suppose the matter to be merely speculative28. Suppose that the action of gravity were propagated at the same rate as light. Then the earth would feel the pull of the sun eight minutes or so after she had been in the place where the sun began to exert that particular pull. The direction of the pull then would not be that of the straight line connecting the earth and sun at the moment when the pull was felt, but that of the straight line connecting the sun and the earth eight minutes or so before. For instance, when the earth is at E1, fig. 6, the sun at S would begin to exert a pull in the line E1 S, but the earth would only feel this pull when she got to E2, her place eight minutes later, when it would act upon her in the direction E2 F, parallel to E1 S. Now this pull, E2 F, may be divided into two parts, one along E2 S, pulling the earth towards the sun S, the other along E2 T in the earth's course, hastening her therefore. But the maintenance by the earth of the same constant track depends entirely29 on the action of gravity sunwards. If there is any action in addition, hastening the earth, then she will not keep her course,[6] but will travel in a constantly widening path,—or, in a sort of spiral, very slowly retreating from the sun, but retreating constantly. The change of distance would not be measurable in millions of years; but the increase in the length of the year would, before long, be observable. Because there is no such increase, astronomers30 feel well assured that gravity is not only propagated more swiftly than light, but many times, even, as we have seen, many millions of times, more swiftly.
It is then in an infinitely minute time that the action of gravity traverses all ordinary distances. The earth's pull on the moon takes less than the 50,000,000th part of a second in reaching the moon,—and the particles constituting the mass of the earth act on ourselves, and on all the objects which lie near the earth's surface, in far less than the 10,000,000th part even of this utterly31 minute time-interval.
Yet age after age has passed during which this infinitely active force has been at work without diminution, and age after age will continue to pass without any change in its activity. For millions of millions of ?ons it has lasted and will last, so permanent is it; while its operation is felt simultaneously32 at points millions of millions of star-distances apart. What infinities33 of distance has this wonderful attractive force traversed!
But even these considerations do not present the greatest of the marvels35 of gravity. It is wonderful, indeed, to consider a form of attraction possessed36 by the infinitely minute, and exerted over the infinitely vast, operating in portions of time immeasurably small, and extending its operations throughout time infinite. But the mystery of mysteries is not here. The marvel34 of marvels is this, that, so far as we can perceive, the force of gravity is exerted without any material connection with the objects moved by it. Matter seems to act where it is not, to use the phraseology of the schools. Of this "action at a distance," Newton himself said, that it is inconceivable, that in point of fact it is impossible. "No man," he said, "who has, in philosophical37 matters, a competent faculty38 of thinking," can "for a moment believe that a body can act through a vacuum, without the intervention39 of anything else by or through which the force may be conveyed from one body to another." Yet this is precisely40 what gravity seems to do. The ether occupies, indeed, all space; but there is nothing at present known to us by which we can understand how the ether can transmit the force of gravity. The power of the ether in the rapid transmission of undulations seems to attain41 its limit in the propagation of light and heat and electricity at the rate of nearly 200,000 miles per second. How the ether can act so as to serve as a medium of communication between bodies at all distances, transmitting impressions 10,000,000 times faster, at least, than light travels, nothing at present known to us enables us to say. I have, in a lecture which I gave in America upon the mysteries of the universe, indicated a way in which gravity may be conceived to be generated and transmitted; and I may hereafter describe the conception (based partly on the views of Le Sage). But it is only a conception. There is no phenomenon (except the very form of attraction which has to be explained) tending to show that the conception is correct And even if it be accepted, it brings us face to face with only greater marvels.
At present, however, let this simply be said in conclusion—that the apparent action of gravity at a distance is, of all physical wonders, the greatest yet known to man. If we accept the opinion of Newton, which, indeed, seems to me indisputable, that matter cannot act through a vacuum, then we must admit the existence of properties, as yet unthought of, in the ether of space, or in some still more subtle universe permeating42 that ether. If, on the other hand, we accept the belief that matter can act at a distance, then is there no miracle, either of those believed in by mankind generally, or of those more generally rejected, which exceeds in marvellousness this wonder of all the wonders of physical science.
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1
mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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diffuse
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| v.扩散；传播；adj.冗长的；四散的，弥漫的 | |
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6
concise
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| adj.简洁的，简明的 | |
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7
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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attentively
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| adv.聚精会神地；周到地；谛；凝神 | |
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9
penetrates
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| v.穿过( penetrate的第三人称单数 )；刺入；了解；渗透 | |
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diminution
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| n.减少；变小 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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12
receding
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| v.逐渐远离( recede的现在分词 )；向后倾斜；自原处后退或避开别人的注视；尤指问题 | |
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accurately
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| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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14
Saturn
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| n.农神，土星 | |
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15
nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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celestial
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| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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quotation
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| n.引文，引语，语录；报价，牌价，行情 | |
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19
constituents
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| n.选民( constituent的名词复数 )；成分；构成部分；要素 | |
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molecules
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| 分子( molecule的名词复数 ) | |
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domain
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| n.(活动等)领域，范围；领地，势力范围 | |
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22
velocity
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| n.速度，速率 | |
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velocities
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| n.速度( velocity的名词复数 )；高速，快速 | |
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24
axis
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| n.轴，轴线，中心线；坐标轴，基准线 | |
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25
accounting
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| n.会计，会计学，借贷对照表 | |
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fig
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| n.无花果(树) | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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astronomers
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| n.天文学者，天文学家( astronomer的名词复数 ) | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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simultaneously
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| adv.同时发生地，同时进行地 | |
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infinities
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| n.无穷大( infinity的名词复数 )；无限远的点；无法计算的量；无限大的量 | |
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marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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marvels
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| n.奇迹( marvel的名词复数 )；令人惊奇的事物（或事例）；不平凡的成果；成就v.惊奇，对…感到惊奇( marvel的第三人称单数 ) | |
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36
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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41
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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42
permeating
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| 弥漫( permeate的现在分词 )； 遍布； 渗入； 渗透 | |
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