Many of these productions grouped themselves round the Table of King Arthur, "matter of Britain"; others dealt with "matter of Rome," that is all the ancient world; others with "matter of France"; others with legends or fancies, English or foreign. Their subject was often the chivalrous4 theory and practice of love, as a kind of religion, a fantastic semi-idealized devotion to the beloved, who, as a rule, was another man's wife. This breach5 of recognized religion and morality was often set down to fate, to the power that the Anglo-Saxons named Wyrd.
The two greatest cycles of romantic love are found in the lives of Tristram and Iseult (the wife of King Mark of Cornwall, and aunt by marriage of Tristram), and of Lancelot and Guinevere, the wife of King Arthur. Tristram (whose name seems to be altered from the Welsh name Drysdan), has but little original connexion with the Court of Arthur, though he is a mythical6 hero of a very old Welsh "triad". He and Iseult love each other because they have by mischance drunk together of a love potion intended for Mark and his wife; their love is fatal and inevitable7, and immortal8.
Lancelot, on the other hand, has been sent to bring the bride[Pg 61] Guinevere to Arthur, and they fall in love before the lady has seen her lord. Every one knows their joys and sorrows, from Malory's "Morte d'Arthur," (1470)—a prose selection and compilation9 of "the French books," which excels them and supersedes10 them—and from the poems of Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, and Mr. Swinburne.
The romances of love and tournament are pervaded11 and darkened by the influence of the Celtic Merlin, the enchanter and prophet whom men call Devil's son; he represents Destiny. A wide circle of romances, "Merlin" and the "Suite12 de Merlin," attributed to Robert de Borron, at the end of the twelfth century, are concerned with him.
As if to counteract13 the fanaticism14 of love which, in the romances, becomes a non-moral counter-religion, the mysterious story of the Holy Grail came into literature, French, German, and English. The Grail is perhaps originally one of the many magical things of Celtic legend, a vessel15 as rich in food inexhaustible as the purse of Fortunatus in gold, but conceived by the romance writers to be a mystic dish or cup, used by our Lord before His passion, and still existing, but only to be seen by the pure of heart, such as Sir Percival, and Sir Galahad, the maiden16 son of Lancelot.
By accident or design the romances fall into a tragic17 sequence: the youth of Arthur, and his unconscious sin; the mysterious birth of Merlin; the fatal loves of Lancelot and Guinevere; the coming of the Grail and the search for the Grail by many knights18; the failure of all but Galahad and Percival; the falling of Lancelot and Guinevere to their old love again; and the sorrows and treacheries that precede and lead up to the king's last battle in the west, and his passing to Avilion.
France and Ireland, like England, have their own romances on the adventures of knights under the feudal19 sway of a chief king; in France, Charlemagne; in Ireland, Conchobar or Fionn; in England, Arthur, and in all these cases the king becomes much less interesting than his knights, such as Roland and Oliver in France; Cuchulain and Diarmaid in Ireland; Lancelot, Tristram, Gawain, and Percival in England. Yet Arthur, at first and at the last, is the supreme20 as well as the central figure in the epic21, or[Pg 62] cycle, of romances. These are a great treasury22 of brilliant imaginations, rising from Celtic traditions of unknown antiquity23, and then transfigured, first by the chivalrous counter-religion of love; next by the reaction to celibacy24, and the yearning25 after some visible and tangible26 Christian27 relic28 and sign, "the vision of the Holy Grail". From this hoard29 of mediaeval fancies later poets have taken what they could, have placed the jewels in settings of their own fashioning.
The romance writers were by no means restricted to "matter of Britain," with Celtic traditions; or to "matter of France," the epics30 of Charlemagne and his peers, or even to "matter of Rome," ranging through all antiquity. Material came in from popular tales of all countries, and from recent historical events, as in the romance of Richard C?ur de Lion. In the fifteenth century there was a romance of Jeanne d'Arc, as fantastic as any; the matter of it survives partly in the prose of the "Chronique de Lorraine," and has drifted into "Henry VI," Pt. I. In France the most famous and fashionable novelists of the late twelfth century were Chrétien de Troyes and Beno?t de Ste.-Maure, author of the great romance of Troy, whose manner, long-winded and elaborately courtly, was strangely revived by the French romancers of the years preceding Molière.
Tristram.
The earliest English romances, or novels of chivalrous adventures, are couched in metre. Among the first is "Sir Tristrem" (usually spelled Tristram); certainly this has been the most popular in modern times. Sir Walter Scott edited it, from the copy in the Auchinleck Manuscript (a collection of early poems once in the possession of Boswell of Auchinleck, father of Dr. Johnson's Boswell).[1]
Sir Walter was persuaded that "Sir Tristrem" was written from local Celtic tradition, by the famed Thomas of Ercildoune, called[Pg 63] the Rhymer. Thomas, who dwelt at Ercildoune (Earlstone on Leader water), was a neighbour, as it were, of Scott at Abbotsford; he died between 1286 and 1299, and he had great though obviously accidental fame, as a prophet.
The poem on Tristram begins with the words,
I was at Erceldoune
With Thomas spake I there,
There heard I rede in roune
Who Tristram gat and bare,
(that is, "I heard who the father and mother of Tristram were")
Who was King with croun;
And who him fostered yare;
And who was bold baroun.
As their elders ware31,
Bi yere:—
Thomas tells in toun,
This auventours as thai ware.
The English poet uses this difficult stanza32 in place of the simple rhymes of a French original which knew nothing of Ercildoune. In similar stanzas33, of French origin as usual, the whole romance is told. Throughout "Tomas" is mentioned as the source of the story—"as Tomas hath us taught".
There are fragments of an earlier French romance in which Tomas is also quoted as the source, and an early German version, by Godfrey of Strasbourg refers to Thomas of Britanie.
Scott was well aware that the story of Tristram was popular in France long before the time of Thomas of Ercildoune, but he liked to believe that Thomas collected Celtic traditions of Tristram from the people of Leaderdale and Tweeddale, though they, by 1220-1290, were English in blood and speech.
In the romance, Tristram is peerless in music, chess-playing, the fine art of hunting, and of cutting up the deer; and his main virtue34 is constancy to Iseult, wife of his uncle, King Mark. This unfortunate prince is not the crafty35 avenger36 of his own wrongs, as in Malory's "Morte d'Arthur," but a guileless, good-natured being, constantly and ludicrously deceived. Iseult is treacherous37 and cruel, but everything is forgiven to her, and, as the manuscript, is defective38, we do not know how the poet handled the close of[Pg 64] the tale, the episode of the other Iseult "of the white hands". Scott finished the tale in the metre and language of the original. Tristram is dying in Brittany, only Iseult of Cornwall can heal him, as only ?none could heal Paris. Tristram sends for her, the vessel is to carry white sails if it bears her; black, if it does not. The idea is from the Greek saga39 of Theseus. The second Iseult, wife of Tristram, falsely reports that the sails of the vessel are black. Tristram dies, and Iseult of Cornwall falls dead when she beholds40 him.
Swiche lovers als thei
Neer shall be moe,"
concludes Sir Walter.
Havelok.
In "Havelok" we naturally expect, thinking of our historical hero Havelock, to find a true English romance. The scene is partly in England, the tale is of a Danish king's son kept out of his own by one of the most fearsome guardians41 of romance (who chops up the hero's little sisters), is saved by the thrall42 Grim, who was ordered to murder him, and, after adventures as a kitchen lad, marries an English princess who is in the hands of another usurper43. The story is truly English in sentiment and style. The poet curses Godard, the murderous oppressor of Havelok, in a thoroughly44 satisfactory fashion. The noble birth of the hero is recognized by the "battle-flame" of the ancient Irish romances; the flame with which Athene crowns Achilles in Homer shines round Havelok. This light warns Grim not to drown Havelok, and teaches the oppressed lady whom he wins that her wooer is no kitchen-knave but a prince in disguise. The story has abundance of spirit, and may be read with more pleasure than the romance of the perfidies46 of Iseult. It is written in no affected47 and entangled48 rhymes, but in rhyming couplets.
King Horn.
In "King Horn" we have a novel that must have been reckoned most satisfactory. The course of true love is interrupted by accidents which caused the utmost anxiety to the[Pg 65] readers, who probably looked at the end to see "if she got him". "He" was Prince Horn, son of Murry, King of Saddene; the realm is "by west," and is invaded by Saracens. They spare Horn, for his beauty's sake, but launch him in a boat with his friends, Athulf and Fikenhild; his land they overrun, and disestablish the Church, being themselves professors of the Moslem49 religion. Horn drifts to the shore of the realm of Westerness, under King Aylmar. Here the king's daughter Rymenhild, falls in love with Horn, but cannot have an opportunity of declaring her passion. In the romances the lady, as a rule, begins the wooing. By Athelbrus, the steward50, Athulf is brought to her bower51, apparently52 in the dark, for she addresses him as Horn.
"Horn" quoth she, "well long
I have thee loved strong."
Athulf undeceives her; Horn is brought, in the absence of King Aylmar: Rymenhild again speaks the secret of her heart, and when Horn alludes53 to their unequal ranks, she faints away—one of the earliest faints executed by any heroine in English fiction. Horn kisses her into consciousness, and she devises that he shall be knighted. The king consents, giving him a ring which secures him from "dread54 of dunts," sends him to win glory. Horn at once kills a hundred Saracens. But Fikenhild, his false friend, finds Horn consoling Rymenhild for a dream of a great fish that burst her landing net. Fikenhild, in jealousy55, warns King Aylmar, who discovers Horn and his daughter embracing. Horn is exiled, and bids Rymenhild wait seven years, and then marry if she will. Like the daughter of "that Turk," in "The Loving Ballad56 of Lord Bateman," she "takes a vow57 and keeps it strong".
At another court Horn, now styled Cutberd, not only slays58 giants, but encounters and routs59 the very Saracens who had invaded his father's dominions60. The king of the country offers Horn his daughter and realm: he, however, is true to his vow, but, at the end of seven years, Rymenhild is betrothed61 to a king. She sends a boy to Horn with a message. In returning with Horn's reply the boy is drowned; the princess finds his dead[Pg 66] body. Disguised as a palmer, like Ivanhoe, Horn returns to Westerness, and, like Odysseus, sits on the ground at the palace, as a beggar. Rymenhild does not recognize him, asks him if he has met Horn, and is shown her own ring. Horn, she is told, is dead. She had secreted62 a knife to kill her bridegroom, like the Bride of Lammermoor. Then Horn reveals himself, the pair are wedded64, but he has still to recover his own kingdom. This he does, but Fikenhild has carried off Rymenhild. Disguised as minstrels, Horn and his friends surprise him in his new castle, and all ends happily.
"Horn" is a fair example, happily short, of the novels of the period, which, in essence, are like all good novels that end well. Assonance (rhyme of vowels65 but not of consonants) occurs in the verse:—
He lokede on his rynge,
And thogte on Rymenhilde.
It is not necessary to analyze66 the plots of all the romances: two or three enable us to estimate the kind of fiction that was popular with ladies in bower.
Beues of Hamtoun.
"Sir Beues of Hamtoun" is another English romance, concerning the son of the Earl of Southampton and his wife, a princess of Scotland. The Earl is old, and his bride proposes to the Kaiser to kill the Earl and wed63 herself. The Emperor promptly67 invades England and cuts off the head of the good Earl. The Scottish traitress orders the murder of her son, Beues, but is deceived by her agent, and Beues knocks down the Kaiser.
The boy is sold and sent to Armenia, where he refuses to worship Apolyn (Apollo). The pagan king has a fair daughter, Josian, who becomes the mistress of Beues, while he has a conquered giant, Ascopart, for page. After a thousand adventures, Beues and Josian, being true lovers, make a good end, and die together. The English writer, prolix68 as he is, has shortened his French original, in places, made additions in others, and generally writes with freedom.
[Pg 67]
Guy of Warwick.
The same happy end, simultaneous death, rewards the hero and heroine of "Guy of Warwick". The hero's unexplained forgetfulness of his lady, Felice, is borrowed from the ancient popular tale in Scots, "The Black Bull of Noroway," where the forgetfulness is explained. Many stock incidents of the romances come from popular tales ("M?rchen") of unknown antiquity. Felice is a very learned and rather hard-hearted maiden, and Guy, when in love, faints frequently. The romance contains every kind of adventure with dragons, lions, and human foes69, and as much religion as devout70 damsels could desire, or even more, for Guy, in a devout mood, deserts the learned Felice for a life of chastity and military adventure. As usual he returns in the guise45 of a palmer.
Arthur and Merlin.
The "Arthour and Merlin," a rhymed romance of the old story, from the Auchinleck manuscript, about 1320, has not the gleams of true poetry that shine in Layamon's "Brut," and is verbose71 and incomplete—the tragedy of Arthur is absent. We find, however, the story of how Arthur won the sword Excalibur, thereby72 proving himself a true prince, for no other man could pluck it from the stone into which it was driven. King Lot (Llew, a historical personage apparently), could not draw forth73 Excalibur. Sir Kay, one of Arthur's companions in the oldest Welsh tales, appears, with Sir Gawain, whose character, as in the Welsh romances, is far above that which he displays in the "Idylls of the King"; Merlin continually exercises the art of glamour74, appearing in various forms, and Arthur loves Guinevere, but the poet wearied of his toil75 long before the last battle in the west.
He professes76 that, as many gentlemen know not French, and as
Right is that Inglische understand
That was born in Inglond.
he sings in English of the glory of England, Arthur. The final English-form of the great Arthurian tale may best be considered when we arrive at the date of Sir Thomas Malory and Caxton.[Pg 68] In Malory's "Morte Arthur" the long dull wars of the king against the Anglo-Saxon invaders77 are much compressed, while the epic, tragic, and mystic elements, the great character of Lancelot, the mournful victory of the winning of the Grail, and the end of all, are handled with genius.
The Tale of Troy.
The story of Troy had a hold on the mediaeval mind only less strong than the story of Arthur. In early English, at the end of the fourteenth century, we find the romance in the revived Anglo-Saxon alliterative form; it is the "Geste Hystoriale" concerning the Destruction of Troy, and the story is told once more in the rhyming couplets of the "Troy Book". The manuscript of the "Troy Book" is marked "Liber Guilielmi Laud78, Archiepiscopi Cantuar et Cancellarii Universitatis Oxon 1633". (The book of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury and Chancellor79 of the University of Oxford80.)
The author of the alliterative romance begins by saying that learned men wrote the history in Latin, but that poets have corrupted81 it by fables82 and partisanship83. Homer, he says, was notoriously partial to the Greeks; moreover, he introduced incredible gods fighting like men. Ovid, on the other hand, was "honest"; Virgil was true to the rightful cause, that of Troy; but the best authority is Gydo (Guido de Colonna).
Such was the nature of historical criticism as understood by the mediaeval romancer. For love of lost causes, and, as descendants of the Trojans through the Brut of mediaeval myth, the romancers detested84 the Ach?ans, the conquering Greeks.
The Story of Troy from Homer to Shakespeare.
The history of the development of the "Tale of Troy," as Chaucer and even as Shakespeare knew it, is very curious. Homer himself, perhaps living about 1100-1000 b.c., tells, in the Iliad and Odyssey85, parts of the "Tale" as it was known to his own people, the conquering Ach?ans, who were to the older dwellers86 in Greece what the Normans were to the English. They finally melted into the older population, who, about 800-700 b.c., wrote poems of[Pg 69] their own about the "Tale of Troy," altered the facts, and blackened the characters of Homer's greatest heroes. Later, again, the great Athenian tragedians, of the fifth century b.c., wrote dramas more on the lines of the conquered population of Greece than on those of Homer, and they still more deeply degraded some of the heroes of Homer. The Romans, looking on themselves as descended87 from the Trojans, persevered88 in the same course, and a Greek, after the Christian era, wrote a prose version of the "Tale of Troy," pretending that it was a manuscript by Dictys of Crete, who was a spectator of the Trojan war. A similar prose book was attributed—to another spectator, Dares of Phrygia. These books tell the story of Troilus and Cressida, of Palamedes, and many other tales unknown to Homer. But, in Western Europe, Homer was unread, and unknown in England till Chapman translated him: and all the romancers about Troy—Lydgate, Chaucer, Caxton, and the rest, down to Shakespeare,—depend on the false tales whose growth we have described.
Probably the first romancer who expanded the bald prose narratives89 of Dares and Dictys, was Beno?t de Sainte-Maure (1160) in a long French rhyming poem. He unites the fates of Briseida (Briseis, daughter of Calchas, the Greek priest who is made a Trojan), and Troilus, son of King Priam. Briseida, through a confusion with Homer's "Chryseis," daughter of Chryses, the Phrygian priest of Apollo, later becomes the "Cressid" of Chaucer and Shakespeare. Meanwhile "Gydo" or Guido de Colonna, did the French of Beno?t into Latin prose (1287) and Guido is the source of the English authors of the alliterative and the rhyming romances of Troy. The pedigree of the story is
Pseudo-Dares—Pseudo-Dictys
|
Beno?t de Sainte-Maure
|
Guido de Colonna
|
The English Romances.
[Pg 70]
Through Caxton's printed "Book of Troy," the story continued popular, a cheap edition appeared in the eighteenth century.
Each of Homer's poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, deals but with the adventures of a fortnight, or six weeks, but the mediaeval readers wanted, and from the romancers received, the whole history of the ten years' siege, and more, with Christian legends thrown in, with minute descriptions of all the characters—Cassandra "gleyit a little," had a slight cast of the eye like Mary Stuart. The heroes fight as mounted knights, not in chariots; they use cross-bows as well as long-bows; and Hector kills men by the thousand, with more than Irish exaggeration. As Hector must be killed, Achilles suddenly charges him in front, while his shield is slung90 behind. Had a Trojan poet left an epic on the war he would not have told the story otherwise. The poet of the Laud "Troy Book" bids God curse ?neas as a traitor91, forgetting, apparently, that the British are descendants of ?neas.
King Alisaundre.
The history of Alexander with all manner of romantic and fabulous92 additions, under the name "King Alisaundre," is in rhyming couplets of eight syllables93 to each line; the couplets are often irregular, as in Coleridge's "Christabel," and the story, like most of the English romances of this period, is borrowed through the French, from a late fabulous Greek work.
This kind of versified romance endured till Chaucer thought it tiresome94, and parodied95 it, in "Sir Thopas". These rhyming English romances, in various forms of verse, were made for ladies and gentlemen who, already, were not able to read the more artistic96 and elaborate French romances for themselves; but were very well able to take pleasure in stories of true love and miraculous97 adventures. The romances set a fashion which was continued in the endless heroic novels in prose, French, and English, down to the end of the seventeenth century. The Middle Ages had no taste for novels of ordinary life, about people of their own time. These, in England, do not begin to appear till the reign3 of Queen Elizabeth, and then nearly a century and a half passed before they became really popular.
[Pg 71]
If much has been said about these old romances it is because they have so powerfully impressed themselves on the fancy of all later English poets, from Shakespeare and Milton, who dreamed of an epic on Arthur, and delighted in the sonorous98 names of Arthur's knights, to Tennyson and William Morris.
The romances, composed of fancies from so many sources and times, Greek, Celtic, Roman, and French, and English, are like that Corinthian bronze composed of gold and silver, copper99 and lead, all molten together at the burning of Corinth. In this rich metal poets of later times have moulded figures in their own fashion.
[1] Scott's edition of 1819 is the fourth, while other romances in verse are to be read in the volumes of learned societies. No doubt people bought the book for the interesting essays and notes of Sir Walter; few of them would look at the old romance itself.
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constrained
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| adj.束缚的,节制的 | |
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supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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chivalrous
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| adj.武士精神的；对女人彬彬有礼的 | |
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breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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mythical
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| adj.神话的；虚构的；想像的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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compilation
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supersedes
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| 取代，接替( supersede的第三人称单数 ) | |
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pervaded
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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suite
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| n.一套(家具)；套房；随从人员 | |
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counteract
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fanaticism
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vessel
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maiden
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tragic
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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feudal
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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epic
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treasury
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antiquity
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celibacy
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yearning
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tangible
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Christian
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relic
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hoard
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epics
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ware
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stanza
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stanzas
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virtue
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crafty
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avenger
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treacherous
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defective
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saga
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beholds
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| v.看，注视( behold的第三人称单数 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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41
guardians
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| 监护人( guardian的名词复数 )； 保护者，维护者 | |
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thrall
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| n.奴隶；奴隶制 | |
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43
usurper
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| n. 篡夺者, 僭取者 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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guise
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| n.外表，伪装的姿态 | |
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46
perfidies
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| n.背信弃义，背叛，出卖( perfidy的名词复数 ) | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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entangled
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| adj.卷入的；陷入的；被缠住的；缠在一起的v.使某人（某物/自己）缠绕，纠缠于（某物中），使某人（自己）陷入（困难或复杂的环境中）( entangle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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Moslem
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| n.回教徒，穆罕默德信徒；adj.回教徒的，回教的 | |
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steward
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| n.乘务员，服务员；看管人；膳食管理员 | |
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51
bower
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| n.凉亭，树荫下凉快之处；闺房；v.荫蔽 | |
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52
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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53
alludes
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| 提及，暗指( allude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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54
dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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ballad
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| n.歌谣，民谣，流行爱情歌曲 | |
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vow
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| n.誓(言)，誓约；v.起誓，立誓 | |
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slays
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的第三人称单数 ) | |
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routs
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| n.打垮，赶跑( rout的名词复数 )；（体育）打败对方v.打垮，赶跑( rout的第三人称单数 )；（体育）打败对方 | |
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60
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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betrothed
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| n. 已订婚者 动词betroth的过去式和过去分词 | |
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secreted
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| v.（尤指动物或植物器官）分泌( secrete的过去式和过去分词 )；隐匿，隐藏 | |
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wed
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| v.娶，嫁，与…结婚 | |
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wedded
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| adj.正式结婚的；渴望…的，执著于…的v.嫁，娶，（与…）结婚( wed的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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vowels
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| n.元音，元音字母( vowel的名词复数 ) | |
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analyze
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| vt.分析，解析 (=analyse) | |
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promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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prolix
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| adj.罗嗦的；冗长的 | |
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foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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verbose
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| adj.用字多的；冗长的；累赘的 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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glamour
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| n.魔力，魅力；vt.迷住 | |
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toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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professes
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| 声称( profess的第三人称单数 )； 宣称； 公开表明； 信奉 | |
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invaders
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| 入侵者，侵略者，侵入物( invader的名词复数 ) | |
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laud
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| n.颂歌；v.赞美 | |
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chancellor
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| n.(英)大臣；法官；(德、奥)总理；大学校长 | |
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Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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81
corrupted
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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82
fables
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| n.寓言( fable的名词复数 )；神话，传说 | |
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Partisanship
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| n. 党派性, 党派偏见 | |
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detested
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| v.憎恶，嫌恶，痛恨( detest的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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odyssey
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| n.长途冒险旅行；一连串的冒险 | |
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dwellers
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| n.居民，居住者( dweller的名词复数 ) | |
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87
descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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88
persevered
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| v.坚忍，坚持( persevere的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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89
narratives
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| 记叙文( narrative的名词复数 )； 故事； 叙述； 叙述部分 | |
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slung
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| 抛( sling的过去式和过去分词 )； 吊挂； 遣送； 押往 | |
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traitor
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| n.叛徒，卖国贼 | |
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92
fabulous
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| adj.极好的；极为巨大的；寓言中的，传说中的 | |
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syllables
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| n.音节( syllable的名词复数 ) | |
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94
tiresome
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| adj.令人疲劳的，令人厌倦的 | |
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95
parodied
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| v.滑稽地模仿，拙劣地模仿( parody的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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miraculous
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| adj.像奇迹一样的，不可思议的 | |
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98
sonorous
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| adj.响亮的，回响的；adv.圆润低沉地；感人地；n.感人，堂皇 | |
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99
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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