Wyatt, of a Yorkshire family, was son of Sir Henry Wyatt, of Allington in Kent, a man who had strange vicissitude10 of fortune in the reigns12 of Richard III and Henry VII. Thomas went very early to St. John's College, Cambridge, married at 17, was a glory of the Court of Henry VIII, went on diplomatic missions to Italy (Venice, Ferrara, Bologna, Florence, and Rome), studied Italian literature, was now in favour and now in prison, and made love, with more or less of earnestness, to Anne Boleyn, being fortunate in escaping from the doom13 of her admirers when Henry VIII took her life. Favoured by Henry's minister, Thomas Cromwell, but detested14, and accused of diplomatic misdeeds[Pg 164] by Bishop15 Bonner, Wyatt defended himself with a success then very rare, retired16 from Court and wrote satires17 and poems on the advantages of retirement19; paraphrased20 the Seven Penitential Psalms21, and died of a fever caught from fatigue22 and travel, in October, 1542, lamented24 in verse by Surrey.
The reader of his sonnets25, the earliest in English, is amazed to find that we have travelled through so many centuries of the life of English poetry, and only reached lame23 lines that can scarcely be scanned. Since Chaucer the art of verse had become very dim, perhaps in consequence of the transitional state of the language, the obsolescence26 of the sound of the final e, and the Anglicizing of the sounds of borrowed French words by throwing back the accent (as in hōnour for honōūr, virtue27 for vīrtūe). Wyatt, when he began to write sonnets, put accents in strange places, and counted syllables28 on his fingers, content if he could reckon ten of them, in a line. To rhyme "aggrieved29" to "wearied," is like the tramp's effort to make "workhouse" rhyme with "sorrow". The young student in a novel of Henri Murger's reads only the rhymes in sonnets. If we study in that way Wyatt's sonnet6 "The Lover Waxeth Wiser," we find that the last words in the first eight lines are
aggrieved
last
past
wearied
buried
fast
haste
stirred.
He usually tried to keep to the Petrarchian arrangement of rhymes in the first eight lines a b b a a b b a, but, contrary to Italian rule, his last two lines were always a rhyming couplet, as in Shakespeare's "Sonnets," in which the Petrarchian model is wholly disregarded. The sonnet thus ends with an emphatic32 clench33, usually moral, while in the Italian sonnet the last six lines resemble the withdrawal34 of the wave of the first eight lines.
The sonnet, with its concision35 and its technical difficulties, afforded excellent practice to poets who endeavoured to bring[Pg 165] delicacy36 and order into the chaos37 and coarseness of verse as written by Skelton and his contemporaries. But a good sonnet is among the rarest of good things, and the mere38 technical difficulties once overcome, men's minds may turn out sonnets of no value with the rapidity of machine work. The stock character of this kind of poetry, the Lover, with his strange far-fetched conceit39 in his almost metaphysical refinements40, is apt to become as tedious as the old figures of allegory; however, he was a novelty. Wyatt improved with practice in sonnet-making, though such rhymes as "mountains" "fountains," "plains," "remains," are a stumbling-block to the modern reader. But his "And wilt41 thou leave me thus?" and "Forget not yet the tried intent," with their brief refrains are immortal42 lyrics43, heralding44 the music of the age of Elizabeth.
His epigrams are not the stinging wasps45 of verse commonly called epigrams, but are brief poems in the manner of the epigrams of the Greek Anthology. The satires on the Court, based on Italian poems, and including a form of the "Town and Country Mouse," are not in Skelton's violent way, but the work of a gentle man, and the poems in rhyme royal, seven line stanzas46, with six syllables to the line, are charming novelties.
The Earl of Surrey.
The date of Surrey's birth is uncertain: it was four or five years after the battle of Flodden (1513), in which his grandfather—"an auld48 decrepit49 carle in a chariot—" was victorious50 over the fiery51 James IV. The title Earl of Surrey is a courtesy title, borne by the poet as son of the Duke of Norfolk. He was at least a dozen years younger than his friend Wyatt, and was a lively young courtier, who was made a Knight52 of the Garter in 1541. He married very early, in 1532, and his famous passion for fair Geraldine may have been merely poetical—the usual story about Geraldine and the magic mirror is derived53 from a novel of 1554. About 1542 he was imprisoned54 for a matter of a duel55, a challenge at least, and in 1543 went about London at night breaking windows with a stone-bow. He wrote a poem in which he gravely maintains that he was merely punishing the wicked city for her sins. Again released from prison he saw some fighting in France, and,[Pg 166] returning, patronized a poet named Churchyard, who later wept unmelodiously above his early tomb. Early in 1546 Surrey had the worse of a battle with the French near Boulogne, was superseded57 by the Earl of Hertford, and, in January, 1547, was accused of a sort of heraldic high treason (quartering the arms of Edward the Confessor, who, of course, had never heard of armorial bearings), and executed, shortly before the death of the tyrant58, Henry VIII.
Surrey's versification, especially in the sonnet, is much superior to that of Wyatt, but he is less apt to keep to the rules of rhyme, in the first eight lines; indeed he writes in the form of Shakespeare's sonnets. His "Prisoned in Windsor" is a pleasant picture of a young gallant59's life, who takes his eye off the ball at Tennis to watch the ladies in the dedans: hunts, tilts60, and makes friends. The moral poems in lines of fourteen feet are of no great merit, but Surrey's translation of the Second Book of the ?neid is the first English example of blank verse, borrowed from Italian practice. The lines are stiff and hard; and the main merit is the novelty, the first birth of the measure that was to become, in forty years, "Marlowe's mighty61 line".
Tottel's Miscellany.
The poems of Wyatt and Surrey were not published till long after the deaths of the authors, when they appeared, with many other pieces, in "Tottel's Miscellany". Other writers represented there are Nicholas Grimald, with his jog-trot metre, the "poulter's" or poulterer's measure of from twelve to fourteen syllables to the dozen—so were eggs sold by a custom of the trade. Surrey's retainer, Thomas Churchyard, a man very busy with sword and pen, was also a writer in the "Miscellany"; and indeed was a literary hack-of-all-work. There came, after the brief gleam of sunshine that fell on Wyatt and Surrey, another generation of wooden versifiers and translators, with whose names, Tusser the bucolic62, Phaer, Golding, Googe, and Whetstone, it is hardly necessary to fill the page and burden the memory. They may be studied by the curious, but they wrought63 no deliverance. To generations which possess superabundance of versifiers and no great poets, these barren years are a kind of consolation64. For[Pg 167] reasons not to be discovered there are such periods in the literary life of all nations, as in England between Pope and Cowper.
The versifiers in "Tottel's Miscellany" keep harping65 unmelodiously on the strings66 of Surrey and Wyatt, many of their pieces are complimentary67 addresses to ladies, or laments68 on the deaths of friends. Poor conceits69 are twisted and tormented70; there is hardly any promise of advance; we scarcely hear any of the bird-like musical notes with which the later part of the reign11 of Elizabeth sang so wondrously71.
Gascoigne.
George Gascoigne (1525 (?)-1577) was an interesting character. He was a Cambridge man, a member of the Society of Gray's Inn, a poet who, like Scott, composed his verses in the saddle: a Member of Parliament who was opposed as "a common rhymer... noted72 for manslaughter... a notorious Ruffian," and even a spy, certainly he owed debts, and was disinherited by his father. He wrote on woodmanship, but was apt to forget to shoot at the deer that came within range of his cross-bow. As a captain in the Low Countries he and his command were surprised and taken by the Spaniards: he came home, published his Posies (1575) and, he says, got not a penny by the venture: he then wrote "The Steel Glass," a kind of satire18, the mirror of the age, in blank verse, and next wrote in common ballad73 measure the long and amazingly prosaic74 "Complaint of Philomene".
In 1572 Gascoigne published "A Hundred Sundry75 Flowers, bound up in one small Posy". The long title sets forth76 that some of the flowers were culled77 in the gardens of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarch, and Ariosto, others are from English orchards78. The native flowers are the sweeter and more fair. While our poets were turning into stiff measures the sonnets of Italy, Gascoigne could write so naturally and melodiously56 his own English, as in his "Lullaby of a Lover".
Sing lullaby, as women do,
Wherewith they bring their babes to rest,
And lullaby can I sing too,
As womanly as can the best.
[Pg 168]
Beneath the stiff borrowed phrases and metres there was always this native and tuneful spirit of unsophisticated song.
In 1575 he was a maker79 of words for the Masques at Leicester's famous reception of Elizabeth at Kenilworth (see the novel of that name, where Scott calmly introduces Shakespeare as already a successful dramatist). He satirized80 drunkards: we have already seen that he translated a tragedy, "Jocasta," from the Italian; he wrote a love story in rhyme of a personal kind, and his brief "Instructions" is the earliest English work, in no way indebted to Aristotle, on the Art of Poetry. As he also translated, we have seen, a comedy from the Italian, and a prose tale, a kind of work later fashionable, Gascoigne may be regarded as an intrepid81 explorer in many fields of literature. "He first beat the path to that perfection which our best poets have aspired82 to since his departure," says Nash (1589). "He brake the ice for our quainter83 poets that now write," says Tofte (1615). But the path as trodden by this pioneer continued to be rough. Gascoigne was an example of the versatility84 and literary ambition which many young gentlemen displayed in the age of Elizabeth; mingling85 poetry and study and serious thought with their gallant adventures in love, diplomacy86, war, and travel.
His "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of Verse in English" is a very brief pamphlet. He quotes "my master, Chaucer" against alliterative "thunder in Rym, Ram30, Ruff," but mentions no other poet. Be original, he says, if you sing of a lady do not applaud her "crystal eye" or "cherry lip," which Spenser did not disdain87, for these things are trite88 and obvious. The great matter is "to avoid the uncomely customs of common writers," says this "common rhymer". Do not use "obscure and dark phrases in a pleasant sonnet". Do not wander out of your "Poulters measure" metre into lines of thirteen syllables. Give every word its natural emphasis: do not make treasure into treasure. Chaucer is to be followed as a master of prosody89. You should write:—
"I understand your meaning by your eye,"
not,
"Your meaning I understand by your eye",
[Pg 169]
"The more monosyllables that you use, the truer Englishman you shall seem".
There follows advice on the caesura, and all this counsel shows that, in the early years of Elizabeth, versification was at a very low ebb90.
In practice, Gascoigne did not always shine. There are few passages of interest in the stiff blank verse of his "Steel Glass" (the mirror that does not flatter). The best passage, and it is very good, describes the labourer,
Behold91 him, priests, and though he stink92 of sweat,
Disdain him not, for shall I tell you what?
Such climb to heaven before the shaven crowns,
because the labourers
feed with fruits of their great pains
Both king and knight and priests in cloister93 pent.
It would be cruel to quote "Philomene," no stall-ballad creeps more tardily94 on a longer road than Gascoigne in his tale of her who sings, in a later poet's words,
Who hath remembered thee, who hath forgotten?
They have all forgotten, oh summer swallow,
But the world shall end when I forget.
Sackville.
The poetry of Thomas Sackville (1536-1608) is not to be found in his dull tragedy, "Gorboduc," but in his contributions to a vast and once popular collection, "The Mirror for Magistrates95". This work is intended to admonish96 men in power by rhymed histories of the falls of English peers and princes. This was the plan of Chaucer's Monk97, in "The Monk's Tale," which that sound critic, the Host, could not long endure. The model was Boccaccio's work on "The Falls of Princes," Englished by Lydgate. The enterprise started by Baldwin and others in 1554-1559, suggests a dread98 lest English verse should return to Lydgate in the den31 of Giant Despair, and take up with sepulchral99 solemnity the tale of tragedies from the darkest days of the unfortunate ancient Britons. A mammoth100 compilation101 was gradually evolved, for doleful matter[Pg 170] was not far to seek, but Sackville's two contributions, the "Induction102," and the "Complaint of Buckingham"—the Buckingham executed under Richard III,—alone concern us.
In the "Induction" the poet describes the gloom of winter, and, in the mediaeval way, dwells long on the constellations103. As he muses104, he is met by a very deplorable female form—
With doleful shrieks105 that echoed in the sky.
She proclaims herself to be Sorrow, a goddess, and guides Sackville "to the grisly lake" of Avernus, over which no fowl106 may fly and live. A number of rueful figures of allegory are encountered, Dread, Revenge, Misery107, Care, Old Age, and Sleep, and these are drawn108 with abundant vigour109 and variety. The stanza47 on Sleep gives the measure of the versification, which is rapid, concise110, various, sustained, and in its music heralds111 the arrival of Spenser.
The body's rest, the quiet of the heart,
The travail's care, the still night's frere was he,
And of our life on earth the better part,
Reiver of sight, and yet in whom we see
Things oft that tide, and oft that never be,
Without respect, esteeming112 equally
King Croesus' pomp and Irus' poverty.
One stanza in the description of the home of the dead seems to have been suggested by famous lines in the Eleventh Book of the "Odyssey113".
The "Induction" ends with the appearance of the spirit of Buckingham, who not only tells his own tragedy at great length, and in full historical detail, but introduces several other ancient tragedies, those of Cyrus, Cambyses, Brutus, Cassius, Besseus, Alexander the Great, Clitus, Phalaris, Pher?us, Camillus, and Hannibal. From these fallen princes we drop to
One John Milton, Sheriff of Shropshire then,
who arrested Buckingham, and to
A man of mine, called Humphrey Banastaire,
[Pg 171]
who betrayed his master. Banastaire is then cursed in eleven stanzas. "May Banastaire live to the age of eighty, and then be tried for theft. May his eldest114 son expire in a pig-sty; his second son be strangled in a puddle115, and his daughter be smitten116 by leprosy."
It cannot be denied that this tragedy, including as it does the murder of the Princes in the Tower, is rather too rich in terrible components117, and does not, especially when Banastaire is being dealt with, affect us in the same measure as Dante's pictures of the Inferno118. On the whole it is the manner, not the matter, of Sackville that contains more than mere promise: his management of the stanza and of the music of the line is far in advance of anything that had come from an English pen since the death of Chaucer. As for the gloom and horror, these were congenial to a people which, since the burning of the Maid of France (1431), had seen an endless sequence of violence, murder, martyrdoms, and massacres119 of peers, Princes, Queens, Bishops120, and humble121 folk.
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1
memorable
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| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
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2
abstained
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| v.戒（尤指酒），戒除( abstain的过去式和过去分词 )；弃权（不投票） | |
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3
dotage
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| n.年老体衰；年老昏聩 | |
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4
doggerel
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| n.拙劣的诗，打油诗 | |
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5
continental
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| adj.大陆的，大陆性的，欧洲大陆的 | |
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6
sonnet
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| n.十四行诗 | |
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poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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8
predecessor
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| n.前辈，前任 | |
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9
renown
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| n.声誉，名望 | |
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10
vicissitude
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| n.变化，变迁，荣枯，盛衰 | |
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11
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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12
reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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13
doom
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| n.厄运，劫数；v.注定，命定 | |
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14
detested
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| v.憎恶，嫌恶，痛恨( detest的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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15
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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16
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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17
satires
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| 讽刺，讥讽( satire的名词复数 )； 讽刺作品 | |
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18
satire
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| n.讽刺，讽刺文学，讽刺作品 | |
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19
retirement
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| n.退休，退职 | |
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20
paraphrased
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| v.释义，意译( paraphrase的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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21
psalms
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| n.赞美诗( psalm的名词复数 )；圣诗；圣歌；(中的) | |
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22
fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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lame
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| adj.跛的，(辩解、论据等)无说服力的 | |
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24
lamented
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| adj.被哀悼的，令人遗憾的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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25
sonnets
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| n.十四行诗( sonnet的名词复数 ) | |
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26
obsolescence
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| n.过时，陈旧，废弃 | |
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27
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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28
syllables
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| n.音节( syllable的名词复数 ) | |
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29
aggrieved
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| adj.愤愤不平的，受委屈的；悲痛的；（在合法权利方面）受侵害的v.令委屈，令苦恼，侵害( aggrieve的过去式)；令委屈，令苦恼，侵害( aggrieve的过去式和过去分词) | |
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30
ram
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| (random access memory)随机存取存储器 | |
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31
den
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| n.兽穴；秘密地方；安静的小房间，私室 | |
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32
emphatic
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| adj.强调的，着重的；无可置疑的，明显的 | |
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33
clench
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| vt.捏紧（拳头等），咬紧（牙齿等），紧紧握住 | |
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34
withdrawal
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| n.取回，提款；撤退，撤军；收回，撤销 | |
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35
concision
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| n.简明，简洁 | |
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36
delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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37
chaos
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| n.混乱，无秩序 | |
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38
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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39
conceit
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| n.自负，自高自大 | |
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40
refinements
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| n.（生活）风雅；精炼( refinement的名词复数 )；改良品；细微的改良；优雅或高贵的动作 | |
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41
wilt
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| v.(使)植物凋谢或枯萎；(指人)疲倦，衰弱 | |
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42
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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43
lyrics
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| n.歌词 | |
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44
heralding
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| v.预示( herald的现在分词 )；宣布（好或重要） | |
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45
wasps
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| 黄蜂( wasp的名词复数 )； 胡蜂； 易动怒的人； 刻毒的人 | |
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46
stanzas
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| 节，段( stanza的名词复数 ) | |
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47
stanza
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| n.（诗）节，段 | |
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48
auld
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| adj.老的，旧的 | |
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49
decrepit
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| adj.衰老的，破旧的 | |
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50
victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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51
fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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52
knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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53
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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54
imprisoned
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| 下狱，监禁( imprison的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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55
duel
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| n./v.决斗；(双方的)斗争 | |
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56
melodiously
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57
superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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tyrant
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| n.暴君，专制的君主，残暴的人 | |
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59
gallant
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| adj.英勇的，豪侠的；(向女人)献殷勤的 | |
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60
tilts
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| （意欲赢得某物或战胜某人的）企图，尝试( tilt的名词复数 ) | |
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61
mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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62
bucolic
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| adj.乡村的；牧羊的 | |
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63
wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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64
consolation
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| n.安慰，慰问 | |
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65
harping
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| n.反复述说 | |
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strings
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| n.弦 | |
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complimentary
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| adj.赠送的，免费的，赞美的，恭维的 | |
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laments
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| n.悲恸，哀歌，挽歌( lament的名词复数 )v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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69
conceits
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| 高傲( conceit的名词复数 )； 自以为； 巧妙的词语； 别出心裁的比喻 | |
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tormented
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| 饱受折磨的 | |
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wondrously
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| adv.惊奇地，非常，极其 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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ballad
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| n.歌谣，民谣，流行爱情歌曲 | |
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prosaic
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| adj.单调的，无趣的 | |
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sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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culled
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| v.挑选，剔除( cull的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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orchards
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| （通常指围起来的）果园( orchard的名词复数 ) | |
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maker
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| n.制造者，制造商 | |
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satirized
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| v.讽刺，讥讽( satirize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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intrepid
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| adj.无畏的，刚毅的 | |
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aspired
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| v.渴望，追求( aspire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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quainter
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| adj.古色古香的( quaint的比较级 )；少见的，古怪的 | |
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versatility
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| n.多才多艺，多样性，多功能 | |
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mingling
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| adj.混合的 | |
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diplomacy
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| n.外交；外交手腕，交际手腕 | |
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disdain
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| n.鄙视，轻视；v.轻视，鄙视，不屑 | |
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trite
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| adj.陈腐的 | |
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prosody
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| n.诗体论，作诗法 | |
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ebb
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| vi.衰退，减退；n.处于低潮，处于衰退状态 | |
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behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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stink
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| vi.发出恶臭；糟透，招人厌恶；n.恶臭 | |
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cloister
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| n.修道院；v.隐退，使与世隔绝 | |
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tardily
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| adv.缓慢 | |
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magistrates
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| 地方法官，治安官( magistrate的名词复数 ) | |
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admonish
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| v.训戒；警告；劝告 | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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sepulchral
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| adj.坟墓的，阴深的 | |
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100
mammoth
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| n.长毛象；adj.长毛象似的，巨大的 | |
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compilation
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| n.编译，编辑 | |
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induction
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| n.感应，感应现象 | |
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103
constellations
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| n.星座( constellation的名词复数 )；一群杰出人物；一系列（相关的想法、事物）；一群（相关的人） | |
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104
muses
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| v.沉思，冥想( muse的第三人称单数 )；沉思自语说（某事） | |
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shrieks
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| n.尖叫声( shriek的名词复数 )v.尖叫( shriek的第三人称单数 ) | |
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fowl
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| n.家禽，鸡，禽肉 | |
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misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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concise
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| adj.简洁的，简明的 | |
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111
heralds
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| n.使者( herald的名词复数 )；预报者；预兆；传令官v.预示( herald的第三人称单数 )；宣布（好或重要） | |
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112
esteeming
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| v.尊敬( esteem的现在分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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113
odyssey
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| n.长途冒险旅行；一连串的冒险 | |
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114
eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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115
puddle
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| n.(雨)水坑，泥潭 | |
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116
smitten
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| 猛打，重击，打击( smite的过去分词 ) | |
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117
components
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| （机器、设备等的）构成要素，零件，成分； 成分( component的名词复数 )； [物理化学]组分； [数学]分量； （混合物的）组成部分 | |
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118
inferno
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| n.火海；地狱般的场所 | |
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119
massacres
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| 大屠杀( massacre的名词复数 )； 惨败 | |
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120
bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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121
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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