Experimenting, two years after the appearance of the ‘kite-carriage,’ on the helicopter principle, W. H. Phillips constructed a model machine which weighed two pounds; this was fitted with revolving5 fans, driven by the combustion6 of charcoal7, nitre, and gypsum, producing steam which, discharging into the air, caused the fans to revolve8. The inventor stated that ‘all being arranged, the steam was up in a few seconds, when the whole apparatus9 spun10 around like any top, and mounted into the air faster than a bird; to what height it ascended12 I had no means of ascertaining13; the distance travelled was across two fields, where, after a long search, I found the machine minus the wings, which had been torn off in contact with the ground.’ This could hardly be described as successful flight, but it was an advance in the construction of machines on the helicopter principle, and it was the first steam-driven model of the type which actually flew. The invention, however, was not followed up.
After Phillips, we come to the great figures of the middle nineteenth century, W. S. Henson and John Stringfellow. Cayley had shown, in 1809, how success might be attained15 by developing the idea of the plane surface so driven as to take advantage of the resistance offered by the air, and Henson, who as early as 1840 was experimenting with model gliders16 and light steam engines, evolved and patented an idea for something very nearly resembling the monoplane of the early twentieth century. His patent, No. 9478, of the year 1842, explains the principle of the machine as follows:—
‘In order that the description hereafter given may58 be rendered clear, I will first shortly explain the principle on which the machine is constructed. If any light and flat or nearly flat article be projected or thrown edgewise in a slightly inclined position, the same will rise on the air till the force exerted is expended17, when the article so thrown or projected will descend18; and it will readily be conceived that, if the article so projected or thrown possessed19 in itself a continuous power or force equal to that used in throwing or projecting it, the article would continue to ascend11 so long as the forward part of the surface was upwards20 in respect to the hinder part, and that such article, when the power was stopped, or when the inclination21 was reversed, would descend by gravity aided by the force of the power contained in the article, if the power be continued, thus imitating the flight of a bird.
Henson’s proposed flying machine.
Stringfellow’s power-driven model—the first model to achieve engine-driven flight.
Now, the first part of my invention consists of an apparatus so constructed as to offer a very extended surface or plane of a light yet strong construction, which will have the same relation to the general machine which the extended wings of a bird have to the body when a bird is skimming in the air; but in place of the movement or power for onward22 progress being obtained by movement of the extended surface or plane, as is the case with the wings of birds, I apply suitable paddle-wheels or other proper mechanical propellers23 worked by a steam or other sufficiently24 light engine, and thus obtain the requisite25 power for onward movement to the plane or extended surface; and in order to give control as to the upward and downward direction of such a machine I apply a tail to the extended surface which is capable of being inclined or raised, so that when the power is acting26 to propel the machine, by59 inclining the tail upwards, the resistance offered by the air will cause the machine to rise on the air; and, on the contrary, when the inclination of the tail is reversed, the machine will immediately be propelled downwards28, and pass through a plane more or less inclined to the horizon as the inclination of the tail is greater or less; and in order to guide the machine as to the lateral29 direction which it shall take, I apply a vertical30 rudder or second tail, and, according as the same is inclined in one direction or the other, so will be the direction of the machine.’
The machine in question was very large, and differed very little from the modern monoplane; the materials were to be spars of bamboo and hollow wood, with diagonal wire bracing31. The surface of the planes was to amount to 4,500 square feet, and the tail, triangular32 in form (here modern practice diverges) was to be 1,500 square feet. The inventor estimated that there would be a sustaining power of half a pound per square foot, and the driving power was to be supplied by a steam engine of 25 to 30 horse-power, driving two six-bladed propellers. Henson was largely dependent on Stringfellow for many details of his design, more especially with regard to the construction of the engine.
The publication of the patent attracted a great amount of public attention, and the illustrations in contemporary journals, representing the machine flying over the pyramids and the Channel, anticipated fact by sixty years and more; the scientific world was divided, as it was up to the actual accomplishment33 of flight, as to the value of the invention.
Stringfellow and Henson became associated,60 after the conception of their design, with an attorney named Colombine, and a Mr Marriott, and between the four of them a project grew for putting the whole thing on a commercial basis—Henson and Stringfellow were to supply the idea; Marriott, knowing a member of Parliament, would be useful in getting a company incorporated, and Colombine would look after the purely34 legal side of the business. Thus an application was made by Mr Roebuck, Marriott’s M.P., for an act of incorporation35 for ‘The Aerial Steam Transit36 Company,’ Roebuck moving to bring in the bill on the 24th of March, 1843. The prospectus37, calling for funds for the development of the invention, makes interesting reading at this stage of aeronautical38 development; it was as follows:—
PROPOSAL.
For subscriptions40 of sums of ￡100, in furtherance of an Extraordinary Invention not at present safe to be developed by securing the necessary Patents, for which three times the sum advanced, namely, ￡300, is conditionally41 guaranteed for each subscription39 on February 1, 1844, in case of the anticipations42 being realised, with the option of the subscribers being shareholders45 for the large amount if so desired, but not otherwise.
* * * * *
An Invention has recently been discovered, which if ultimately successful will be without parallel even in the age which introduced to the world the wonderful effects of gas and of steam.
The discovery is of that peculiar46 nature, so simple in principle yet so perfect in all the ingredients required61 for complete and permanent success, that to promulgate47 it at present would wholly defeat its development by the immense competition which would ensue, and the views of the originator be entirely48 frustrated49.
This work, the result of years of labour and study, presents a wonderful instance of the adaptation of laws long since proved to the scientific world combined with established principles so judiciously50 and carefully arranged, as to produce a discovery perfect in all its parts and alike in harmony with the laws of Nature and of science.
The Invention has been subjected to several tests and examinations and the results are most satisfactory, so much so that nothing but the completion of the undertaking51 is required to determine its practical operation, which being once established its utility is undoubted, as it would be a necessary possession of every empire, and it were hardly too much to say, of every individual of competent means in the civilised world.
Its qualities and capabilities52 are so vast that it were impossible and, even if possible, unsafe to develop them further, but some idea may be formed from the fact that as a preliminary measure patents in Great Britain, Ireland, Scotland, the Colonies, France, Belgium, and the United States, and every other country where protection to the first discoveries of an Invention is granted, will of necessity be immediately obtained, and by the time these are perfected, which it is estimated will be in the month of February, the Invention will be fit for Public Trial, but until the Patents are sealed any further disclosure would be most dangerous to the principle on which it is based.
62 Under these circumstances, it is proposed to raise an immediate27 sum of ￡2,000 in furtherance of the Projector’s views, and as some protection to the parties who may embark53 in the matter, that this is not a visionary plan for objects imperfectly considered, Mr Colombine, to whom the secret has been confided55, has allowed his name to be used on the occasion, and who will if referred to corroborate56 this statement, and convince any inquirer of the reasonable prospects57 of large pecuniary58 results following the development of the Invention.
It is, therefore, intended to raise the sum of ￡2,000 in twenty sums of ￡100 each (of which any subscriber44 may take one or more not exceeding five in number to be held by any individual) the amount of which is to be paid into the hands of Mr Colombine as General Manager of the concern to be by him appropriated in procuring59 the several Patents and providing the expenses incidental to the works in progress. For each of which sums of ￡100 it is intended and agreed that twelve months after the 1st February next, the several parties subscribing60 shall receive as an equivalent for the risk to be run the sum of ￡300 for each of the sums of ￡100 now subscribed61, provided when the time arrives the Patents shall be found to answer the purposes intended.
As full and complete success is alone looked to, no moderate or imperfect benefit is to be anticipated, but the work, if it once passes the necessary ordeal62, to which inventions of every kind must be first subject, will then be regarded by every one as the most astonishing discovery of modern times; no half success can follow, and therefore the full nature of the risk is immediately ascertained63.
63 The intention is to work and prove the Patent by collective instead of individual aid as less hazardous64 at first and more advantageous65 in the result for the Inventor, as well as others, by having the interest of several engaged in aiding one common object—the development of a Great Plan. The failure is not feared, yet as perfect success might, by possibility, not ensue, it is necessary to provide for that result, and the parties concerned make it a condition that no return of the subscribed money shall be required, if the Patents shall by any unforeseen circumstances not be capable of being worked at all; against which, the first application of the money subscribed, that of securing the Patents, affords a reasonable security, as no one without solid grounds would think of such an expenditure66.
It is perfectly54 needless to state that no risk or responsibility of any kind can arise beyond the payment of the sum to be subscribed under any circumstances whatever.
As soon as the Patents shall be perfected and proved it is contemplated67, so far as may be found practicable, to further the great object in view a Company shall be formed but respecting which it is unnecessary to state further details, than that a preference will be given to all those persons who now subscribe43, and to whom shares shall be appropriated according to the larger amount (being three times the sum to be paid by each person) contemplated to be returned as soon as the success of the Invention shall have been established, at their option, or the money paid, whereby the Subscriber will have the means of either withdrawing with a large pecuniary benefit, or by continuing his interest in the concern, lay the foundation for participating in64 the immense benefit which must follow the success of the plan.
It is not pretended to conceal68 that the project is a speculation—all parties believe that perfect success, and thence incalculable advantage of every kind, will follow to every individual joining in this great undertaking; but the Gentlemen engaged in it wish that no concealment69 of the consequences, perfect success, or possible failure, should in the slightest degree be inferred. They believe this will prove the germ of a mighty70 work, and in that belief call for the operation of others with no visionary object, but a legitimate71 one before them, to attain14 that point where perfect success will be secured from their combined exertions72.
All applications to be made to D. E. Colombine, Esquire, 8 Carlton Chambers73, Regent Street.
The applications did not materialise, as was only to be expected in view of the vagueness of the proposals. Colombine did some advertising74, and Mr Roebuck expressed himself as unwilling75 to proceed further in the venture. Henson experimented with models to a certain extent, while Stringfellow looked for funds for the construction of a full-sized monoplane. In November of 1843 he suggested that he and Henson should construct a large model out of their own funds. On Henson’s suggestion Colombine and Marriott were bought out as regards the original patent, and Stringfellow and Henson entered into an agreement and set to work.
Their work is briefly76 described in a little pamphlet by F. J. Stringfellow, entitled A few Remarks on what has been done with screw-propelled Aeroplane Machines65 from 1809 to 1892. The author writes with regard to the work that his father and Henson undertook:—
‘They commenced the construction of a small model operated by a spring, and laid down the larger model 20 ft. from tip to tip of planes, 3? ft. wide, giving 70 ft. of sustaining surface, about 10 more in the tail. The making of this model required great consideration; various supports for the wings were tried, so as to combine lightness with firmness, strength and rigidity78.
‘The planes were staid from three sets of fish-shaped masts, and rigged square and firm by flat steel rigging. The engine and boiler79 were put in the car to drive two screw-propellers, right and left-handed, 3 ft. in diameter, with four blades each, occupying three-quarters of the area of the circumference80, set at an angle of 60 degrees. A considerable time was spent in perfecting the motive power. Compressed air was tried and abandoned. Tappets, cams, and eccentrics were all tried, to work the slide valve, to obtain the best results. The piston81 rod of engine passed through both ends of the cylinder82, and with long connecting rods worked direct on the crank of the propellers. From memorandum83 of experiments still preserved the following is a copy of one: June, 27th, 1845, water 50 ozs., spirit 10 ozs., lamp lit 8.45, gauge84 moves 8.46, engine started 8.48 (100 lb. pressure), engine stopped 8.57, worked 9 minutes, 2,288 revolutions, average 254 per minute. No priming, 40 ozs. water consumed, propulsion (thrust of propellers), 5 lbs. 4? ozs. at commencement, steady, 4 lbs. ? oz., 57 revolutions to 1 oz. water, steam cut off one-third from beginning.
66 ‘The diameter of cylinder of engine was 1? inch, length of stroke 3 inches.
‘In the meantime an engine was also made for the smaller model, and a wing action tried, but with poor results. The time was mostly devoted85 to the larger model, and in 1847 a tent was erected86 on Bala Down, about two miles from Chard, and the model taken up one night by the workmen. The experiments were not so favourable87 as was expected. The machine could not support itself for any distance, but, when launched off, gradually descended88, although the power and surface should have been ample; indeed, according to latest calculations, the thrust should have carried more than three times the weight, for there was a thrust of 5 lbs. from the propellers, and a surface of over 70 square feet to sustain under 30 lbs., but necessary speed was lacking.’
Stringfellow’s model triplane, 1868.
Stringfellow himself explained the failure as follows:—
‘There stood our aerial protégée in all her purity—too delicate, too fragile, too beautiful for this rough world; at least those were my ideas at the time, but little did I think how soon it was to be realised. I soon found, before I had time to introduce the spark, a drooping89 in the wings, a flagging in all the parts. In less than ten minutes the machine was saturated90 with wet from a deposit of dew, so that anything like a trial was impossible by night. I did not consider we could get the silk tight and rigid77 enough. Indeed, the framework altogether was too weak. The steam-engine was the best part. Our want of success was not for want of power or sustaining surface, but for want of proper adaptation of the means to the end of the various parts.’
67 Henson, who had spent a considerable amount of money in these experimental constructions, consoled himself for failure by venturing into matrimony; in 1849 he went to America, leaving Stringfellow to continue experimenting alone. From 1846 to 1848 Stringfellow worked on what is really an epoch-making item in the history of aeronautics91—the first engine-driven aeroplane which actually flew. The machine in question had a 10 foot span, and was 2 ft. across in the widest part of the wing; the length of tail was 3 ft. 6 ins., and the span of tail in the widest part 22 ins., the total sustaining area being about 14 sq. ft. The motive power consisted of an engine with a cylinder of three-quarter inch diameter and a two-inch stroke; between this and the crank shaft92 was a bevelled gear giving three revolutions of the propellers to every stroke of the engine; the propellers, right and left screw, were four-bladed and 16 inches in diameter. The total weight of the model with engine was 8 lbs. Its successful flight is ascribed to the fact that Stringfellow curved the wings, giving them rigid front edges and flexible trailing edges, as suggested long before both by Da Vinci and Borelli, but never before put into practice.
Mr F. J. Stringfellow, in the pamphlet quoted above, gives the best account of the flight of this model: ‘My father had constructed another small model which was finished early in 1848, and having the loan of a long room in a disused lace factory, early in June the small model was moved there for experiments. The room was about 22 yards long and from 10 to 12 ft. high.... The inclined wire for starting the machine occupied less than half the length of the room and left space at the end for the machine to clear the68 floor. In the first experiment the tail was set at too high an angle, and the machine rose too rapidly on leaving the wire. After going a few yards it slid back as if coming down an inclined plane, at such an angle that the point of the tail struck the ground and was broken. The tail was repaired and set at a smaller angle. The steam was again got up, and the machine started down the wire, and, upon reaching the point of self-detachment, it gradually rose until it reached the farther end of the room, striking a hole in the canvas placed to stop it. In experiments the machine flew well, when rising as much as one in seven. The late Rev4. J. Riste, Esq., lace manufacturer, Northcote Spicer, Esq., J. Toms, Esq., and others witnessed experiments. Mr Marriatt, late of the San Francisco News Letter brought down from London Mr Ellis, the then lessee93 of Cremorne Gardens, Mr Partridge, and Lieutenant94 Gale95, the aeronaut, to witness experiments. Mr Ellis offered to construct a covered way at Cremorne for experiments. Mr Stringfellow repaired to Cremorne, but not much better accommodations than he had at home were provided, owing to unfulfilled engagement as to room. Mr Stringfellow was preparing for departure when a party of gentlemen unconnected with the Gardens begged to see an experiment, and finding them able to appreciate his endeavours, he got up steam and started the model down the wire. When it arrived at the spot where it should leave the wire it appeared to meet with some obstruction96, and threatened to come to the ground, but it soon recovered itself and darted97 off in as fair a flight as it was possible to make at a distance of about 40 yards, where it was stopped by the canvas.
69 ‘Having now demonstrated the practicability of making a steam-engine fly, and finding nothing but a pecuniary loss and little honour, this experimenter rested for a long time, satisfied with what he had effected. The subject, however, had to him special charms, and he still contemplated the renewal98 of his experiments.’
It appears that Stringfellow’s interest did not revive sufficiently for the continuance of the experiments until the founding of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain in 1866. Wenham’s paper on Aerial Locomotion99 read at the first meeting of the Society, which was held at the Society of Arts under the Presidency100 of the Duke of Argyll, was the means of bringing Stringfellow back into the field. It was Wenham’s suggestion, in the first place, that monoplane design should be abandoned for the superposition of planes; acting on this suggestion Stringfellow constructed a model triplane, and also designed a steam engine of slightly over one horse-power, and a one horse-power copper101 boiler and fire box which, although capable of sustaining a pressure of 500 lbs. to the square inch, weighed only about 40 lbs.
Both the engine and the triplane model were exhibited at the first Aeronautical Exhibition held at the Crystal Palace in 1868. The triplane had a supporting surface of 28 sq. ft.; inclusive of engine, boiler, fuel, and water its total weight was under 12 lbs. The engine worked two 21 in. propellers at 600 revolutions per minute, and developed 100 lbs. steam pressure in five minutes, yielding one-third horse-power. Since no free flight was allowed in the Exhibition, owing to danger from fire, the triplane was suspended from a70 wire in the nave102 of the building, and it was noted103 that, when running along the wire, the model made a perceptible lift.
A prize of ￡100 was awarded to the steam engine as the lightest steam engine in proportion to its power. The engine and model together may be reckoned as Stringfellow’s best achievement. He used his ￡100 in preparation for further experiments, but he was now an old man, and his work was practically done. Both the triplane and the engine were eventually bought for the Washington Museum; Stringfellow’s earlier models, together with those constructed by him in conjunction with Henson, remain in this country in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
John Stringfellow died on December 13th, 1883. His place in the history of aeronautics is at least equal to that of Cayley, and it may be said that he laid the foundation of such work as was subsequently accomplished104 by Maxim105, Langley, and their fellows. It was the coming of the internal combustion engine that rendered flight practicable, and had this prime mover been available in John Stringfellow’s day the Wright brothers’ achievement might have been antedated106 by half a century.
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1
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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wagon
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| n.四轮马车，手推车，面包车；无盖运货列车 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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rev
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| v.发动机旋转，加快速度 | |
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revolving
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| adj.旋转的，轮转式的；循环的v.（使）旋转( revolve的现在分词 )；细想 | |
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combustion
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| n.燃烧；氧化；骚动 | |
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charcoal
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| n.炭，木炭，生物炭 | |
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revolve
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| vi.(使)旋转；循环出现 | |
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apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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spun
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| v.纺，杜撰，急转身 | |
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ascend
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| vi.渐渐上升，升高；vt.攀登，登上 | |
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ascended
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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ascertaining
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的现在分词 ) | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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gliders
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| n.滑翔机( glider的名词复数 ) | |
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17
expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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18
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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onward
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| adj.向前的，前进的；adv.向前，前进，在先 | |
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propellers
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| n.螺旋桨，推进器( propeller的名词复数 ) | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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acting
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| n.演戏，行为，假装；adj.代理的，临时的，演出用的 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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lateral
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| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
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vertical
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| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
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bracing
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| adj.令人振奋的 | |
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triangular
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| adj.三角（形）的，三者间的 | |
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accomplishment
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| n.完成，成就，（pl.）造诣，技能 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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incorporation
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| n.设立，合并，法人组织 | |
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transit
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| n.经过，运输；vt.穿越，旋转；vi.越过 | |
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prospectus
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| n.计划书；说明书；慕股书 | |
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aeronautical
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| adj.航空（学）的 | |
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subscription
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| n.预订，预订费，亲笔签名，调配法，下标（处方） | |
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subscriptions
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| n.（报刊等的）订阅费( subscription的名词复数 )；捐款；（俱乐部的）会员费；捐助 | |
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41
conditionally
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| adv. 有条件地 | |
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anticipations
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| 预期( anticipation的名词复数 )； 预测； （信托财产收益的）预支； 预期的事物 | |
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subscribe
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| vi.(to)订阅，订购；同意；vt.捐助，赞助 | |
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subscriber
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| n.用户，订户；（慈善机关等的）定期捐款者；预约者；签署者 | |
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shareholders
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| n.股东( shareholder的名词复数 ) | |
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46
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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promulgate
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| v.宣布；传播；颁布（法令、新法律等） | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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frustrated
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| adj.挫败的，失意的，泄气的v.使不成功( frustrate的过去式和过去分词 )；挫败；使受挫折；令人沮丧 | |
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judiciously
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| adv.明断地，明智而审慎地 | |
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51
undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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capabilities
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| n.能力( capability的名词复数 )；可能；容量；[复数]潜在能力 | |
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53
embark
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| vi.乘船，着手，从事，上飞机 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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confided
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| v.吐露（秘密，心事等）( confide的过去式和过去分词 )；（向某人）吐露（隐私、秘密等） | |
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56
corroborate
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| v.支持，证实，确定 | |
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prospects
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| n.希望，前途(恒为复数) | |
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58
pecuniary
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| adj.金钱的；金钱上的 | |
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procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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60
subscribing
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| v.捐助( subscribe的现在分词 )；签署，题词；订阅；同意 | |
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subscribed
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| v.捐助( subscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；签署，题词；订阅；同意 | |
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ordeal
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| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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hazardous
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| adj.(有)危险的，冒险的；碰运气的 | |
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advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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conceal
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，隐蔽 | |
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concealment
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| n.隐藏, 掩盖，隐瞒 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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advertising
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| n.广告业；广告活动 a.广告的；广告业务的 | |
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unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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rigid
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| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
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rigidity
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| adj.钢性，坚硬 | |
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boiler
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| n.锅炉；煮器(壶，锅等) | |
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circumference
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| n.圆周，周长，圆周线 | |
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piston
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| n.活塞 | |
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cylinder
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| n.圆筒，柱(面)，汽缸 | |
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memorandum
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| n.备忘录，便笺 | |
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gauge
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| v.精确计量；估计；n.标准度量；计量器 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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86
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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drooping
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| adj. 下垂的，无力的 动词droop的现在分词 | |
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90
saturated
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| a.饱和的，充满的 | |
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aeronautics
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| n.航空术，航空学 | |
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shaft
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| n.(工具的)柄，杆状物 | |
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lessee
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| n.（房地产的）租户 | |
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lieutenant
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| n.陆军中尉，海军上尉；代理官员，副职官员 | |
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gale
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| n.大风，强风，一阵闹声（尤指笑声等） | |
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obstruction
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| n.阻塞，堵塞；障碍物 | |
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97
darted
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| v.投掷，投射( dart的过去式和过去分词 )；向前冲，飞奔 | |
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98
renewal
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| adj.(契约)延期，续订，更新，复活，重来 | |
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99
locomotion
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| n.运动，移动 | |
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100
presidency
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| n.总统(校长，总经理)的职位(任期) | |
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101
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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102
nave
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| n.教堂的中部；本堂 | |
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103
noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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104
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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105
maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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106
antedated
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| v.（在历史上）比…为早( antedate的过去式和过去分词 )；先于；早于；（在信、支票等上）填写比实际日期早的日期 | |
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