234 This is viewing the matter in a broad and general sense; there were firms, especially in France, but also in England and America, which looked confidently for the great days of flying to arrive, and regarded their sunk capital as investment which would eventually bring its due return. But when one looks back on those years, the firms in question stand out as exceptions to the general run of people, who regarded aeronautics as something extremely scientific, exceedingly dangerous, and very expensive. The very fame that was attained4 by such pilots as became casualties conduced to the advertisement of every death, and the dangers attendant on the use of heavier-than-air machines became greatly exaggerated; considering the matter as one of number of miles flown, even in the early days, flying exacted no more toll6 in human life than did railways or road motors in the early stages of their development. But to take one instance, when C. S. Rolls was killed at Bournemouth by reason of a faulty tail-plane, the fact was shouted to the whole world with almost as much vehemence7 as characterised the announcement of the Titanic8 sinking in mid-Atlantic.
Army Aeroplane Tests on Salisbury Plain.
Cody on his new aeroplane.
Even in 1911 the deadlock was apparent; meetings were falling off in attendance, and consequently in financial benefit to the promoters; there remained, however, the knowledge—for it was proved past question—that the aeroplane in its then stage of development was a necessity to every army of the world. France had shown this by the more than interest taken by the French Government in what had developed into an Air Section of the French army; Germany, of course, was hypnotised by Count Zeppelin and his dirigibles, to say nothing of the Parsevals which had been proved useful military235 accessories; in spite of this, it was realised in Germany that the aeroplane also had its place in military affairs. England came into the field with the military aeroplane trials of August 1st to 15th, 1912, barely two months after the founding of the Royal Flying Corps9.
When the R.F.C. was founded—and in fact up to two years after its founding—in no country were the full military potentialities of the aeroplane realised; it was regarded as an accessory to cavalry10 for scouting12 more than as an independent arm; the possibilities of bombing were very vaguely13 considered, and the fact that it might be possible to shoot from an aeroplane was hardly considered at all. The conditions of the British Military Trials of 1912 gave to the War Office the option of purchasing for ￡1,000 any machine that might be awarded a prize. Machines were required, among other things, to carry a useful load of 350 lbs. in addition to equipment, with fuel and oil for 4? hours; thus loaded, they were required to fly for 3 hours, attaining14 an altitude of 4,500 feet, maintaining a height of 1,500 feet for 1 hour, and climbing 1,000 feet from the ground at a rate of 200 feet per minute, ‘although 300 feet per minute is desirable.’ They had to attain5 a speed of not less than 55 miles per hour in a calm, and be able to plane down to the ground in a calm from not more than 1,000 feet with engine stopped, traversing 6,000 feet horizontal distance. For those days, the landing demands were rather exacting15; the machine should be able to rise without damage from long grass, clover, or harrowed land, in 100 yards in a calm, and should be able to land without damage on any cultivated ground, including rough ploughed land, and, when landing on smooth turf in a calm, be able to pull up236 within 75 yards of the point of first touching16 the ground. It was required that pilot and observer should have as open a view as possible to front and flanks, and they should be so shielded from the wind as to be able to communicate with each other. These are the main provisions out of the set of conditions laid down for competitors, but a considerable amount of leniency17 was shown by the authorities in the competition, who obviously wished to try out every machine entered and see what were its capabilities18.
The beginning of the competition consisted in assembling the machines against time from road trim to flying trim. Cody’s machine, which was the only one to be delivered by air, took 1 hour and 35 minutes to assemble; the best assembling time was that of the Avro, which was got into flying trim in 14 minutes 30 seconds. This machine came to grief with Lieut. Parke as pilot, on the 7th, through landing at very high speed on very bad ground; a securing wire of the undercarriage broke in the landing, throwing the machine forward on to its nose and then over on its back. Parke was uninjured, fortunately; the damaged machine was sent off to Manchester for repair and was back again on the 16th of August.
It is to be noted19 that by this time the Royal Aircraft Factory was building aeroplanes of the B.E. and F.E. types, but at the same time it is also to be noted that British military interest in engines was not sufficient to bring them up to the high level attained by the planes, and it is notorious that even the outbreak of war found England incapable20 of providing a really satisfactory aero engine. In the 1912 Trials, the only machines which actually completed all their tests were the Cody237 biplane, the French Deperdussin, the Hanriot, two Bleriots and a Maurice Farman. The first prize of ￡4,000, open to all the world, went to F. S. Cody’s British-built biplane, which complied with all the conditions of the competition and well earned its official acknowledgment of supremacy21. The machine climbed at 280 feet per minute and reached a height of 5,000 feet, while in the landing test, in spite of its great weight and bulk, it pulled up on grass in 56 yards. The total weight was 2,690 lbs. when fully22 loaded, and the total area of supporting surface was 500 square feet; the motive23 power was supplied by a six-cylinder 120 horse-power Austro-Daimler engine. The second prize was taken by A. Deperdussin for the French-built Deperdussin monoplane. Cody carried off the only prize awarded for a British-built plane, this being the sum of ￡1,000, and consolation24 prizes of ￡500 each were awarded to the British Deperdussin Company and The British and Colonial Aeroplane Company, this latter soon to become famous as makers25 of the Bristol aeroplane, of which the war honours are still fresh in men’s minds.
While these trials were in progress Audemars accomplished26 the first flight between Paris and Berlin, setting out from Issy early in the morning of August 18th, landing at Rheims to refill his tanks within an hour and a half, and then coming into bad weather which forced him to land successively at Mezieres, Laroche, Bochum, and finally nearly Gersenkirchen, where, owing to a leaky petrol tank, the attempt to win the prize offered for the first flight between the two capitals had to be abandoned after 300 miles had been covered, as the time limit was definitely exceeded.238 Audemars determined27 to get through to Berlin, and set off at 5 in the morning of the 19th, only to be brought down by fog; starting off again at 9.15 he landed at Hanover, was off again at 1.35, and reached the Johannisthal aerodrome in the suburbs of Berlin at 6.48 that evening.
As early as 1910 the British Government possessed28 some ten aeroplanes, and in 1911 the force developed into the Army Air Battalion29, with the aeroplanes under the control of Major J. H. Fulton, R.F.A. Toward the end of 1911 the Air Battalion was handed over to (then) Brig.-Gen. D. Henderson, Director of Military Training. On June 6th, 1912, the Royal Flying Corps was established with a military wing under Major F. H. Sykes and a naval30 wing under Commander C. R. Samson. A joint31 Naval and Military Flying School was established at Upavon with Captain Godfrey M. Paine, R.N., as Commandant and Major Hugh Trenchard as Assistant Commandant. The Royal Aircraft Factory brought out the B.E. and F.E. types of biplane, admittedly superior to any other British design of the period, and an Aircraft Inspection32 Department was formed under Major J. H. Fulton. The military wing of the R.F.C. was equipped almost entirely33 with machines of Royal Aircraft Factory design, but the Navy preferred to develop British private enterprise by buying machines from private firms. On July 1st, 1914, the establishment of the Royal Naval Air Service marked the definite separation of the military and naval sides of British aviation, but the Central Flying School at Upavon continued to train pilots for both services.
Army Aeroplane Tests on Salisbury Plain, 2nd August, 1912.
The new Army aeroplane.
It is difficult at this length of time, so far as the military wing was concerned, to do full justice to the239 spade work done by Major-General Sir David Henderson in the early days. Just before war broke out, British military air strength consisted officially of eight squadrons, each of 12 machines and 13 in reserve, with the necessary complement34 of road transport. As a matter of fact, there were three complete squadrons and a part of a fourth which constituted the force sent to France at the outbreak of war. The value of General Henderson’s work lies in the fact that, in spite of official stinginess and meagre supplies of every kind, he built up a skeleton organisation35 so elastic36 and so well thought out that it conformed to war requirements as well as even the German plans fitted in with their aerial needs. On the 4th of August, 1914, the nominal37 British air strength of the military wing was 179 machines. Of these, 82 machines proceeded to France, landing at Amiens and flying to Maubeuge to play their part in the great retreat with the British Expeditionary Force, in which they suffered heavy casualties both in personnel and machines. The history of their exploits, however, belongs to the War period.
The development of the aeroplane between 1912 and 1914 can be judged by comparison of the requirements of the British War Office in 1912 with those laid down in an official memorandum38 issued by the War Office in February, 1914. This latter called for a light scout11 aeroplane, a single-seater, with fuel capacity to admit of 300 miles range and a speed range of from 50 to 85 miles per hour. It had to be able to climb 3,500 feet in five minutes, and the engine had to be so constructed that the pilot could start it without assistance. At the same time, a heavier type of machine for reconnaissance work was called for, carrying fuel240 for a 200 mile flight with a speed range of between 35 and 60 miles per hour, carrying both pilot and observer. It was to be equipped with a wireless39 telegraphy set, and be capable of landing over a 30 foot vertical40 obstacle and coming to rest within a hundred yards’ distance from the obstacle in a wind of not more than 15 miles per hour. A third requirement was a heavy type of fighting aeroplane accommodating pilot and gunner with machine gun and ammunition41, having a speed range of between 45 and 75 miles per hour and capable of climbing 3,500 feet in 8 minutes. It was required to carry fuel for a 300 mile flight and to give the gunner a clear field of fire in every direction up to 30 degrees on each side of the line of flight. Comparison of these specifications43 with those of the 1912 trials will show that although fighting, scouting, and reconnaissance types had been defined, the development of performance compared with the marvellous development of the earlier years of achieved flight was small.
Yet the records of those years show that here and there an outstanding design was capable of great things. On the 9th September, 1912, Vedrines, flying a Deperdussin monoplane at Chicago, attained a speed of 105 miles an hour. On August 12th G. de Havilland took a passenger to a height of 10,560 feet over Salisbury Plain, flying a B.E. biplane with a 70 horse-power Renault engine. The work of de Havilland may be said to have been the principal influence in British military aeroplane design, and there is no doubt that his genius was in great measure responsible for the excellence45 of the early B.E. and F.E. types.
On the 31st May, 1913, H. G. Hawker, flying at Brooklands, reached a height of 11,450 feet on a Sopwith241 biplane engined with an 80 horse-power Gnome46 engine. On June 16th, with the same type of machine and engine, he achieved 12,900 feet. On the 2nd October, in the same year, a Grahame White biplane with 120 horse-power Austro-Daimler engine, piloted by Louis Noel, made a flight of just under 20 minutes carrying 9 passengers. In France a Nieuport monoplane piloted by G. Legagneaux attained a height of 6,120 metres, or just over 20,070 feet, this being the world’s height record. It is worthy47 of note that of the world’s aviation records as passed by the International Aeronautical48 Federation49 up to June 30th, 1914, only one, that of Noel, is credited to Great Britain.
Just as records were made abroad, with one exception, so were the really efficient engines. In England there was the Green engine, but the outbreak of war found the Royal Flying Corps with 80 horse-power Gnomes50, 70 horse-power Renaults, and one or two Antoinette motors, but not one British, while the Royal Naval Air Service had got 20 machines with engines of similar origin, mainly land planes in which the wheeled undercarriages had been replaced by floats. France led in development, and there is no doubt that at the outbreak of war, the French military aeroplane service was the best in the world. It was mainly composed of Maurice Farman two-seater biplanes and Bleriot monoplanes—the latter type banned for a period on account of a number of serious accidents that took place in 1912.
America had its Army Aviation School, and employed Burgess-Wright and Curtiss machines for the most part. In the pre-war years, once the Wright Brothers had accomplished their task, America’s chief accomplishment51 consisted in the development of the ‘Flying242 Boat,’ alternatively named with characteristic American clumsiness, ‘The Hydro-Aeroplane.’ In February of 1911, Glenn Curtiss attached a float to a machine similar to that with which he won the first Gordon-Bennett Air Contest and made his first flying boat experiment. From this beginning he developed the boat form of body which obviated52 the use and troubles of floats—his hydroplane became its own float.
Mainly owing to greater engine reliability53 the duration records steadily54 increased. By September of 1912 Fourny, on a Maurice Farman biplane, was able to accomplish a distance of 628 miles without a landing, remaining in the air for 13 hours 17 minutes and just over 57 seconds. By 1914 this was raised by the German aviator55, Landemann, to 21 hours 48? seconds. The nature of this last record shows that the factors in such a record had become mere56 engine endurance, fuel capacity, and capacity of the pilot to withstand air conditions for a prolonged period, rather than any exceptional flying skill.
Flight of full-size Langley Aerodrome, piloted by Glenn H. Curtiss, 2nd June 1914, at Hammondsport, N.Y.
Original machine and engine, with the addition of pontoons which weighed 300 lbs.
Let these years be judged by the records they produced, and even then they are rather dull. The glory of achievement such as characterised the work of the Wright Brothers, of Bleriot, and of the giants of the early days, had passed; the splendid courage, the patriotism57 and devotion of the pilots of the War period had not yet come to being. There was progress, past question, but it was mechanical, hardly ever inspired. The study of climatic conditions was definitely begun and aeronautical metereology came to being, while another development already noted was the fitting of wireless telegraphy to heavier-than-air machines, as instanced in the British War Office specification42 of243 February, 1914. These, however, were inevitable58; it remained for the War to force development beyond the inevitable, producing in five years that which under normal circumstances might easily have occupied fifty—the aeroplane of to-day; for, as already remarked, there was a deadlock, and any survey that may be made of the years 1912–1914, no matter how superficial, must take it into account with a view to retaining correct perspective in regard to the development of the aeroplane.
There is one story of 1914 that must be included, however briefly59, in any record of aeronautical achievement, since it demonstrates past question that to Professor Langley really belongs the honour of having achieved a design which would ensure actual flight, although the series of accidents which attended his experiments gave to the Wright Brothers the honour of first leaving the earth and descending60 without accident in a power-driven heavier-than-air machine. In March, 1914, Glenn Curtiss was invited to send a flying boat to Washington for the celebration of ‘Langley Day,’ when he remarked, ‘I would like to put the Langley aeroplane itself in the air.’ In consequence of this remark, Secretary Walcot of the Smithsonian Institution authorised Curtiss to re-canvas the original Langley aeroplane and launch it either under its own power or with a more recent engine and propeller61. Curtiss completed this, and had the machine ready on the shores of Lake Keuka, Hammondsport, N.Y., by May. The main object of these renewed trials was to show whether the original Langley machine was capable of sustained free flight with a pilot, and a secondary object was to determine more fully the advantages of the tandem62 monoplane type; thus the aeroplane was first244 flown as nearly as possible in its original condition, and then with such modifications63 as seemed desirable. The only difference made for the first trials consisted in fitting floats with connecting trusses; the steel main frame, wings, rudders, engine, and propellers64 were substantially as they had been in 1903. The pilot had the same seat under the main frame and the same general system of control. He could raise or lower the craft by moving the rear rudder up and down; he could steer65 right or left by moving the vertical rudder. He had no ailerons nor wing-warping mechanism66, but for lateral67 balance depended on the dihedral angle of the wings and upon suitable movements of his weight or of the vertical rudder.
After the adjustments for actual flight had been made in the Curtiss factory, according to the minute descriptions contained in the Langley Memoir68 on Mechanical Flight, the aeroplane was taken to the shore of Lake Keuka, beside the Curtiss hangars, and assembled for launching. On a clear morning (May 28th) and in a mild breeze, the craft was lifted on to the water by a dozen men and set going, with Mr Curtiss at the steering69 wheel, esconced in the little boat-shaped car under the forward part of the frame. The four-winged craft, pointed70 somewhat across the wind, went skimming over the wavelets, then automatically headed into the wind, rose in level poise71, soared gracefully72 for 150 feet, and landed softly on the water near the shore. Mr Curtiss asserted that he could have flown farther, but, being unused to the machine, imagined that the left wings had more resistance than the right. The truth is that the aeroplane was perfectly73 balanced in wing resistance, but turned on the water245 like a weather vane, owing to the lateral pressure on its big rear rudder. Hence in future experiments this rudder was made turnable about a vertical axis74, as well as about the horizontal axis used by Langley. Henceforth the little vertical rudder under the frame was kept fixed75 and inactive.7
That the Langley aeroplane was subsequently fitted with an 80 horse-power Curtiss engine and successfully flown is of little interest in such a record as this, except for the fact that with the weight nearly doubled by the new engine and accessories the machine flew successfully, and demonstrated the perfection of Langley’s design by standing44 the strain. The point that is of most importance is that the design itself proved a success and fully vindicated76 Langley’s work. At the same time, it would be unjust to pass by the fact of the flight without according to Curtiss due recognition of the way in which he paid tribute to the genius of the pioneer by these experiments.
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1
aeronautics
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| n.航空术，航空学 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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deadlock
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| n.僵局，僵持 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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toll
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| n.过路(桥)费；损失，伤亡人数；v.敲(钟) | |
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vehemence
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| n.热切；激烈；愤怒 | |
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titanic
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| adj.巨人的，庞大的，强大的 | |
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corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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scout
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| n.童子军，侦察员；v.侦察，搜索 | |
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scouting
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| 守候活动，童子军的活动 | |
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vaguely
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| adv.含糊地，暖昧地 | |
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attaining
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的现在分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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exacting
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| adj.苛求的，要求严格的 | |
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touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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leniency
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| n.宽大（不严厉） | |
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capabilities
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| n.能力( capability的名词复数 )；可能；容量；[复数]潜在能力 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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consolation
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| n.安慰，慰问 | |
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makers
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| n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式） | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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battalion
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| n.营；部队；大队(的人) | |
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naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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inspection
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| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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complement
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| n.补足物，船上的定员；补语；vt.补充，补足 | |
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organisation
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| n.组织，安排，团体，有机休 | |
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elastic
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| n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的 | |
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nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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memorandum
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| n.备忘录，便笺 | |
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wireless
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| adj.无线的；n.无线电 | |
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vertical
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| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
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ammunition
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| n.军火，弹药 | |
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specification
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| n.详述；[常pl.]规格，说明书，规范 | |
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specifications
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| n.规格；载明；详述；（产品等的）说明书；说明书( specification的名词复数 )；详细的计划书；载明；详述 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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gnome
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| n.土地神；侏儒，地精 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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aeronautical
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| adj.航空（学）的 | |
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federation
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| n.同盟，联邦，联合，联盟，联合会 | |
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gnomes
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| n.矮子( gnome的名词复数 )；侏儒；（尤指金融市场上搞投机的）银行家；守护神 | |
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accomplishment
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| n.完成，成就，（pl.）造诣，技能 | |
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obviated
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| v.避免，消除（贫困、不方便等）( obviate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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reliability
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| n.可靠性，确实性 | |
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steadily
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| adv.稳定地；不变地；持续地 | |
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aviator
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| n.飞行家，飞行员 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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propeller
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| n.螺旋桨，推进器 | |
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tandem
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| n.同时发生；配合；adv.一个跟着一个地；纵排地；adj.（两匹马）前后纵列的 | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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propellers
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| n.螺旋桨，推进器( propeller的名词复数 ) | |
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65
steer
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| vt.驾驶，为…操舵；引导；vi.驾驶 | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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lateral
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| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
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memoir
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| n.[pl.]回忆录，自传；记事录 | |
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steering
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| n.操舵装置 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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poise
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| vt./vi. 平衡，保持平衡；n.泰然自若，自信 | |
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gracefully
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| ad.大大方方地；优美地 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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axis
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| n.轴，轴线，中心线；坐标轴，基准线 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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vindicated
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| v.澄清（某人/某事物）受到的责难或嫌疑( vindicate的过去式和过去分词 )；表明或证明（所争辩的事物）属实、正当、有效等；维护 | |
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