Francesco Lana, with his ‘aerial ship’ stands as one of the first great exponents1 of aerostatics; up to the time of the Mongolfier and Charles balloon experiments, aerostatic and aerodynamic research are so inextricably intermingled that it has been thought well to treat of them as one, and thus the work of Lana, Veranzio and his parachute, Guzman’s frauds, and the like, have already been sketched2. In connection with Guzman, Hildebrandt states in his Airships Past and Present, a fairly exhaustive treatise3 on the subject up to 1906, the year of its publication, that there were two inventors—or charlatans—Lorenzo de Guzman and a monk4 Bartolemeo Laurenzo, the former of whom constructed an unsuccessful airship out of a wooden basket covered with paper, while the latter made certain experiments with a machine of which no description remains5. A third de Guzman, some twenty-five years later, announced that he had constructed a flying machine, with which he proposed to fly from a tower to prove his success to the public. The lack of record of any fatal accident overtaking him about that time seems to show that the experiment was not carried out.
Galien, a French monk, published a book L’art de naviguer dans l’air in 1757, in which it was conjectured6 that the air at high levels was lighter7 than that immediately318 over the surface of the earth. Galien proposed to bring down the upper layers of air and with them fill a vessel8, which by Archimidean principle would rise through the heavier atmosphere. If one went high enough, said Galien, the air would be two thousand times as light as water, and it would be possible to construct an airship, with this light air as lifting factor, which should be as large as the town of Avignon, and carry four million passengers with their baggage. How this high air was to be obtained is matter for conjecture—Galien seems to have thought in a vicious circle, in which the vessel that must rise to obtain the light air must first be filled with it in order to rise.
Cavendish’s discovery of hydrogen in 1776 set men thinking, and soon a certain Doctor Black was suggesting that vessels9 might be filled with hydrogen, in order that they might rise in the air. Black, however, did not get beyond suggestion; it was Leo Cavallo who first made experiments with hydrogen, beginning with filling soap bubbles, and passing on to bladders and special paper bags. In these latter the gas escaped, and Cavallo was about to try goldbeaters’ skin at the time that the Mongolfiers came into the field with their hot air balloon.
Joseph and Stephen Mongolfier, sons of a wealthy French paper manufacturer, carried out many experiments in physics, and Joseph interested himself in the study of aeronautics10 some time before the first balloon was constructed by the brothers—he is said to have made a parachute descent from the roof of his house as early as 1771, but of this there is no proof. Galien’s idea, together with study of the movement of clouds, gave Joseph some hope of achieving aerostation through Galien’s schemes, and the first experiments were made319 by passing steam into a receiver, which, of course, tended to rise—but the rapid condensation12 of the steam prevented the receiver from more than threatening ascent13. The experiments were continued with smoke, which produced only a slightly better effect, and, moreover, the paper bag into which the smoke was induced permitted of escape through its pores; finding this method a failure the brothers desisted until Priestley’s work became known to them, and they conceived the use of hydrogen as a lifting factor. Trying this with paper bags, they found that the hydrogen escaped through the pores of the paper.
Their first balloon, made of paper, reverted14 to the hot-air principle; they lighted a fire of wool and wet straw under the balloon—and as a matter of course the balloon took fire after very little experiment; thereupon they constructed a second, having a capacity of 700 cubic feet, and this rose to a height of over 1,000 feet. Such a success gave them confidence, and they gave their first public exhibition on June 5th, 1783, with a balloon constructed of paper and of a circumference15 of 112 feet. A fire was lighted under this balloon, which, after rising to a height of 1,000 feet, descended17 through the cooling of the air inside a matter of ten minutes. At this the Académie des Sciences invited the brothers to conduct experiments in Paris.
The Mongolfiers were undoubtedly18 first to send up balloons, but other experimenters were not far behind them, and before they could get to Paris in response to their invitation, Charles, a prominent physicist19 of those days, had constructed a balloon of silk, which he proofed against escape of gas with rubber—the Roberts had just succeeded in dissolving this320 substance to permit of making a suitable coating for the silk. With a quarter of a ton of sulphuric acid, and half a ton of iron filings and turnings, sufficient hydrogen was generated in four days to fill Charles’s balloon, which went up on August 29th, 1783. Although the day was wet, Paris turned out to the number of over 300,000 in the Champs de Mars, and cannon20 were fired to announce the ascent of the balloon. This, rising very rapidly, disappeared amid the rain clouds, but, probably bursting through no outlet21 being provided to compensate22 for the escape of gas, fell soon in the neighbourhood of Paris. Here peasants, ascribing evil supernatural influence to the fall of such a thing from nowhere, went at it with the implements23 of their craft—forks, hoes, and the like—and maltreated it severely24, finally attaching it to a horse’s tail and dragging it about until it was mere25 rag and scrap26.
Meanwhile, Joseph Mongolfier, having come to Paris, set about the construction of a balloon out of linen27; this was in three diverse sections, the top being a cone28 30 feet in depth, the middle a cylinder29 42 feet in diameter by 26 feet in depth, and the bottom another cone 20 feet in depth from junction30 with the cylindrical31 portion to its point. The balloon was both lined and covered with paper, decorated in blue and gold. Before ever an ascent could be attempted this ambitious balloon was caught in a heavy rainstorm which reduced its paper covering to pulp32 and tore the linen at its seams, so that a supervening strong wind tore the whole thing to shreds33.
Mongolfier’s next balloon was spherical34, having a capacity of 52,000 cubic feet. It was made from water-proofed linen, and on September 19th, 1783, it made321 an ascent for the palace courtyard at Versailles, taking up as passengers a cock, a sheep, and a duck. A rent at the top of the balloon caused it to descend16 within eight minutes, and the duck and sheep were found none the worse for being the first living things to leave the earth in a balloon, but the cock, evidently suffering, was thought to have been affected35 by the rarefaction of the atmosphere at the tremendous height reached—for at that time the general opinion was that the atmosphere did not extend more than four or five miles above the earth’s surface. It transpired36 later that the sheep had trampled37 on the cock, causing more solid injury than any that might be inflicted38 by rarefied air in an eight-minute ascent and descent of a balloon.
For achieving this flight Joseph Mongolfier received from the King of France a pension of ￡40, while Stephen was given the Order of St Michael, and a patent of nobility was granted to their father. They were made members of the Legion d’Honneur, and a scientific deputation, of which Faujas de Saint-Fond, who had raised the funds with which Charles’s hydrogen balloon was constructed, presented to Stephen Mongolfier a gold medal struck in honour of his aerial conquest. Since Joseph appears to have had quite as much share in the success as Stephen, the presentation of the medal to one brother only was in questionable39 taste, unless it was intended to balance Joseph’s pension.
Once aerostation had been proved possible, many people began the construction of small balloons—the whole thing was regarded as a matter of spectacles and as a form of amusement by the great majority. A certain322 Baron40 de Beaumanoir made the first balloon of goldbeaters’ skin, this being eighteen inches in diameter, and using hydrogen as a lifting factor. Few people saw any possibilities in aerostation, in spite of the adventures of the duck and sheep and cock; voyages to the moon were talked and written, and there was more of levity41 than seriousness over ballooning as a rule. The classic retort of Benjamin Franklin stands as an exception to the general rule: asked what was the use of ballooning—‘What’s the use of a baby?’ he countered, and the spirit of that reply brought both the dirigible and the aeroplane to being, later.
The next noteworthy balloon was one by Stephen Mongolfier, designed to take up passengers, and therefore of rather large dimensions, as these things went then. The capacity was 100,000 cubic feet, the depth being 85 feet, and the exterior42 was very gaily43 decorated. A short, cylindrical opening was made at the lower extremity44, and under this a fire-pan was suspended, above the passenger car of the balloon. On October 15th, 1783, Pilatre de Rozier made the first balloon ascent—but the balloon was held captive, and only allowed to rise to a height of 80 feet. But, a little later in 1783, Rozier secured the honour of making the first ascent in a free balloon, taking up with him the Marquis d’Arlandes. It had been originally intended that two criminals, condemned45 to death, should risk their lives in the perilous46 venture, with the prospect47 of a free pardon if they made a safe descent, but d’Arlandes got the royal consent to accompany Rozier, and the criminals lost their chance. Rozier and d’Arlandes made a voyage lasting48 for twenty-five minutes, and, on landing, the balloon collapsed49 with such rapidity as323 almost to suffocate50 Rozier, who, however, was dragged out to safety by d’Arlandes. This first aerostatic journey took place on November 21st, 1783.
Some seven months later, on June 4th, 1784, a Madame Thible ascended52 in a free balloon, reaching a height of 9,000 feet, and making a journey which lasted for forty-five minutes—the great King Gustavus of Sweden witnessed this ascent. France grew used to balloon ascents53 in the course of a few months, in spite of the brewing54 of such a storm as might have been calculated to wipe out all but purely55 political interests. Meanwhile, interest in the new discovery spread across the Channel, and on September 15th, 1784, one Vincent Lunardi made the first balloon voyage in England, starting from the Artillery56 Ground at Chelsea, with a cat and dog as passengers, and landing in a field in the parish of Standon, near Ware57. There is a rather rare book which gives a very detailed58 account of this first ascent in England, one copy of which is in the library of the Royal Aeronautical59 Society; the venturesome Lunardi won a greater measure of fame through his exploit than did Cody for his infinitely60 more courageous61 and—from a scientific point of view—valuable first aeroplane ascent in this country.
The Mongolfier type of balloon, depending on hot air for its lifting power, was soon realised as having dangerous limitations. There was always a possibility of the balloon catching62 fire while it was being filled, and on landing there was further danger from the hot pan which kept up the supply of hot air on the voyage—the collapsing63 balloon fell on the pan, inevitably64. The scientist Saussure, observing the filling of the balloons very carefully, ascertained65 that it was rarefaction324 of the air which was responsible for the lifting power, and not the heat in itself, and, owing to the rarefaction of the air at normal temperature at great heights above the earth, the limit of ascent for a balloon of the Mongolfier type was estimated by him at under 9,000 feet. Moreover, since the amount of fuel that could be carried for maintaining the heat of the balloon after inflation was subject to definite limits, prescribed by the carrying capacity of the balloon, the duration of the journey was necessarily limited just as strictly66.
These considerations tended to turn the minds of those interested in aerostation to consideration of the hydrogen balloon evolved by Professor Charles. Certain improvements had been made by Charles since his first construction; he employed rubber-coated silk in the construction of a balloon of 30 feet diameter, and provided a net for distributing the pressure uniformly over the surface of the envelope; this net covered the top half of the balloon, and from its lower edge dependent ropes hung to join on a wooden ring, from which the car of the balloon was suspended—apart from the extension of the net so as to cover in the whole of the envelope, the spherical balloon of to-day is virtually identical with that of Charles in its method of construction. He introduced the valve at the top of the balloon, by which escape of gas could be controlled, operating his valve by means of ropes which depended to the car of the balloon, and he also inserted a tube, of about 7 inches diameter, at the bottom of the balloon, not only for purposes of inflation, but also to provide a means of escape for gas in case of expansion due to atmospheric67 conditions.
Sulphuric acid and iron filings were used by Charles325 for filling his balloon, which required three days and three nights for the generation of its 14,000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas. The inflation was completed on December 1st, 1783, and the fittings carried included a barometer68 and a grapnel form of anchor. In addition to this, Charles provided the first ‘ballon sondé’ in the form of a small pilot balloon which he handed to Mongolfier to launch before his own ascent, in order to determine the direction and velocity69 of the wind. It was a graceful70 compliment to his rival, and indicated that, although they were both working to the one end, their rivalry71 was not a matter of bitterness.
Ascending72 on December 1st, 1783, Charles took with him one of the brothers Robert, and with him made the record journey up to that date, covering a period of three and three-quarter hours, in which time they journeyed some forty miles. Robert then landed, and Charles ascended again alone, reaching such a height as to feel the effects of the rarefaction of the air, this very largely due to the rapidity of his ascent. Opening the valve at the top of the balloon, he descended thirty-five minutes after leaving Robert behind, and came to earth a few miles from the point of the first descent. His discomfort73 over the rapid ascent was mainly due to the fact that, when Robert landed, he forgot to compensate for the reduction of weight by taking in further ballast, but the ascent proved the value of the tube at the bottom of the balloon envelope, for the gas escaped very rapidly in that second ascent, and, but for the tube, the balloon must inevitably have burst in the air, with fatal results for Charles.
As in the case of aeroplane flight, as soon as the326 balloon was proved practicable the flight across the English Channel was talked of, and Rozier, who had the honour of the first flight, announced his intention of being first to cross. But Blanchard, who had an idea for a ‘flying car,’ anticipated him, and made a start from Dover on January 7th, 1785, taking with him an American doctor named Jeffries. Blanchard fitted out his craft for the journey very thoroughly74, taking provisions, oars75, and even wings, for propulsion in case of need. He took so much, in fact, that as soon as the balloon lifted clear of the ground the whole of the ballast had to be jettisoned76, lest the balloon should drop into the sea. Half-way across the Channel the sinking of the balloon warned Blanchard that he had to part with more than ballast to accomplish the journey, and all the equipment went, together with certain books and papers that were on board the car. The balloon looked perilously77 like collapsing, and both Blanchard and Jeffries began to undress in order further to lighten their craft—Jeffries even proposed a heroic dive to save the situation, but suddenly the balloon rose sufficiently78 to clear the French coast, and the two voyagers landed at a point near Calais in the Forest of Guines, where a marble column was subsequently erected79 to commemorate80 the great feat81.
Rozier, although not first across, determined82 to be second, and for that purpose he constructed a balloon which was to owe its buoyancy to a combination of the hydrogen and hot air principles. There was a spherical hydrogen balloon above, and beneath it a cylindrical container which could be filled with hot air, thus compensating83 for the leakage84 of gas from the hydrogen portion of the balloon—regulating the heat of his fire,327 he thought, would give him perfect control in the matter of ascending and descending85.
On July 16th, 1785, a favourable86 breeze gave Rozier his opportunity of starting from the French coast, and with a passenger aboard he cast off in his balloon, which he had named the ‘Aero-Mongolfiere.’ There was a rapid rise at first, and then for a time the balloon remained stationary87 over the land, after which a cloud suddenly appeared round the balloon, denoting that an explosion had taken place. Both Rozier and his companion were killed in the fall, so that he, first to leave the earth by balloon, was also first victim to the art of aerostation.
There followed, naturally, a lull88 in the enthusiasm with which ballooning had been taken up, so far as France was concerned. In Italy, however, Count Zambeccari took up hot-air ballooning, using a spirit lamp to give him buoyancy, and on the first occasion when the balloon car was set on fire Zambeccari let down his passenger by means of the anchor rope, and managed to extinguish the fire while in the air. This reduced the buoyancy of the balloon to such an extent that it fell into the Adriatic and was totally wrecked89, Zambeccari being rescued by fishermen. He continued to experiment up to 1812, when he attempted to ascend51 at Bologna; the spirit in his lamp was upset by the collision of the car with a tree, and the car was again set on fire. Zambeccari jumped from the car when it was over fifty feet above level ground, and was killed. With him the Rozier type of balloon, combining the hydrogen and hot air principles, disappeared; the combination was obviously too dangerous to be practical.
The brothers Robert were first to note how the heat328 of the sun acted on the gases within a balloon envelope, and it has since been ascertained that sun rays will heat the gas in a balloon to as much as 80 degrees Fahrenheit90 greater temperature than the surrounding atmosphere; hydrogen, being less affected by change of temperature than coal gas, is the most suitable filling element, and coal gas comes next as the medium of buoyancy. This for the free and non-navigable balloon, though for the airship, carrying means of combustion91, and in military work liable to ignition by explosives, the gas helium seems likely to replace hydrogen, being non-combustible.
In spite of the development of the dirigible airship, there remains work for the free, spherical type of balloon in the scientific field. Blanchard’s companion on the first Channel crossing by balloon, Dr Jeffries, was the first balloonist to ascend for purely scientific purposes; as early as 1784 he made an ascent to a height of 9,000 feet, and observed a fall in temperature of from 51 degrees—at the level of London, where he began his ascent—to 29 degrees at the maximum height reached. He took up an electrometer, a hydrometer, a compass, a thermometer, and a Toricelli barometer, together with bottles of water, in order to collect samples of the air at different heights. In 1785 he made a second ascent, when trigonometrical observations of the height of the balloon were made from the French coast, giving an altitude of 4,800 feet.
The matter was taken up on its scientific side very early in America, experiments in Philadelphia being almost simultaneous with those of the Mongolfiers in France. The flight of Rozier and d’Arlandes inspired two members of the Philadelphia Philosophical92 Academy to construct a balloon or series of balloons of their own329 design; they made a machine which consisted of no less than 47 small hydrogen balloons attached to a wicker car, and made certain preliminary trials, using animals as passengers. This was followed by a captive ascent with a man as passenger, and eventually by the first free ascent in America, which was undertaken by one James Wilcox, a carpenter, on December 28th 1783. Wilcox, fearful of falling into a river, attempted to regulate his landing by cutting slits93 in some of the supporting balloons, which was the method adopted for regulating ascent or descent in this machine. He first cut three, and then, finding that the effect produced was not sufficient, cut three more, and then another five—eleven out of the forty-seven. The result was so swift a descent that he dislocated his wrist on landing.
A Note on Ballonets or Air Bags.
Meusnier, toward the end of the eighteenth century, was first to conceive the idea of compensating for the loss of gas due to expansion by fitting to the interior of a free balloon a ballonet, or air bag, which could be pumped full of air so as to retain the shape and rigidity94 of the envelope.
The ballonet became particularly valuable as soon as airship construction became general, and it was in the course of advance in Astra Torres design that the project was introduced of using the ballonets in order to give inclination96 from the horizontal. In the earlier Astra Torres, trimming was accomplished97 by moving the car fore11 and aft—this in itself was an advance on the separate ‘sliding weight’ principle—and this was330 the method followed in the Astra Torres bought by the British Government from France in 1912 for training airship pilots. Subsequently, the two ballonets fitted inside the envelope were made to serve for trimming by the extent of their inflation, and this method of securing inclination proved the best until exterior rudders, and greater engine power, supplanted98 it, as in the Zeppelin and, in fact, all rigid95 types.
In the kite balloon, the ballonet serves the purpose of a rudder, filling itself through the opening being kept pointed99 toward the wind—there is an ingenious type of air scoop100 with non-return valve which assures perfect inflation. In the S. S. type of airship, two ballonets are provided, the supply of air being taken from the propeller101 draught102 by a slanting103 aluminium104 tube to the underside of the envelope, where it meets a longitudinal fabric105 hose which connects the two ballonet air inlets. In this hose the non-return air valves, known as ‘crab-pots,’ are fitted, on either side of the junction with the air-scoop. Two automatic air valves, one for each ballonet, are fitted in the underside of the envelope, and, as the air pressure tends to open these instead of keeping them shut, the spring of the valve is set inside the envelope. Each spring is set to open at a pressure of 25 to 28 mm.
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1
exponents
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| n.倡导者( exponent的名词复数 )；说明者；指数；能手 | |
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sketched
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| v.草拟（sketch的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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conjectured
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| 推测，猜测，猜想( conjecture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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lighter
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| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
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vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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aeronautics
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| n.航空术，航空学 | |
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fore
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| adv.在前面；adj.先前的；在前部的；n.前部 | |
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condensation
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| n.压缩，浓缩；凝结的水珠 | |
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ascent
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| n.(声望或地位)提高；上升，升高；登高 | |
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reverted
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| 恢复( revert的过去式和过去分词 )； 重提； 回到…上； 归还 | |
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circumference
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| n.圆周，周长，圆周线 | |
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16
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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physicist
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| n.物理学家，研究物理学的人 | |
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cannon
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| n.大炮，火炮；飞机上的机关炮 | |
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outlet
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| n.出口/路；销路；批发商店；通风口；发泄 | |
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compensate
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| vt.补偿，赔偿；酬报 vi.弥补；补偿；抵消 | |
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implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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severely
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| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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scrap
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| n.碎片；废料；v.废弃，报废 | |
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linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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cone
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| n.圆锥体，圆锥形东西，球果 | |
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cylinder
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| n.圆筒，柱(面)，汽缸 | |
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junction
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| n.连接，接合；交叉点，接合处，枢纽站 | |
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cylindrical
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| adj.圆筒形的 | |
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pulp
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| n.果肉，纸浆；v.化成纸浆，除去...果肉，制成纸浆 | |
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shreds
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| v.撕碎，切碎( shred的第三人称单数 )；用撕毁机撕毁（文件） | |
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spherical
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| adj.球形的；球面的 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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transpired
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| （事实，秘密等）被人知道( transpire的过去式和过去分词 )； 泄露； 显露； 发生 | |
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trampled
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| 踩( trample的过去式和过去分词 )； 践踏； 无视； 侵犯 | |
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inflicted
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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questionable
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| adj.可疑的，有问题的 | |
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baron
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| n.男爵；(商业界等)巨头，大王 | |
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levity
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| n.轻率，轻浮，不稳定，多变 | |
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exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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gaily
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| adv.欢乐地，高兴地 | |
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extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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perilous
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| adj.危险的，冒险的 | |
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prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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collapsed
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| adj.倒塌的 | |
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suffocate
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| vt.使窒息，使缺氧，阻碍；vi.窒息，窒息而亡，阻碍发展 | |
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ascend
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| vi.渐渐上升，升高；vt.攀登，登上 | |
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ascended
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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ascents
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| n.上升( ascent的名词复数 )；（身份、地位等的）提高；上坡路；攀登 | |
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brewing
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| n. 酿造, 一次酿造的量 动词brew的现在分词形式 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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ware
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| n.(常用复数)商品，货物 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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aeronautical
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| adj.航空（学）的 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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courageous
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| adj.勇敢的，有胆量的 | |
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catching
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| adj.易传染的，有魅力的，迷人的，接住 | |
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collapsing
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| 压扁[平]，毁坏，断裂 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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atmospheric
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| adj.大气的，空气的；大气层的；大气所引起的 | |
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barometer
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| n.气压表，睛雨表，反应指标 | |
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velocity
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| n.速度，速率 | |
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graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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ascending
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| adj.上升的，向上的 | |
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discomfort
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| n.不舒服，不安，难过，困难，不方便 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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oars
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| n.桨，橹( oar的名词复数 )；划手v.划（行）( oar的第三人称单数 ) | |
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jettisoned
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| v.抛弃，丢弃( jettison的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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perilously
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| adv.充满危险地，危机四伏地 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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commemorate
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| vt.纪念，庆祝 | |
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feat
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| n.功绩；武艺，技艺；adj.灵巧的，漂亮的，合适的 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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compensating
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| 补偿，补助，修正 | |
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leakage
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| n.漏，泄漏；泄漏物；漏出量 | |
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descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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stationary
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| adj.固定的，静止不动的 | |
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lull
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| v.使安静，使入睡，缓和，哄骗；n.暂停，间歇 | |
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wrecked
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| adj.失事的，遇难的 | |
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Fahrenheit
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| n./adj.华氏温度；华氏温度计(的) | |
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combustion
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| n.燃烧；氧化；骚动 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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slits
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| n.狭长的口子，裂缝( slit的名词复数 )v.切开，撕开( slit的第三人称单数 )；在…上开狭长口子 | |
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rigidity
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| adj.钢性，坚硬 | |
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rigid
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| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
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inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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supplanted
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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scoop
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| n.铲子，舀取，独家新闻；v.汲取，舀取，抢先登出 | |
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propeller
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| n.螺旋桨，推进器 | |
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102
draught
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| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
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slanting
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| 倾斜的，歪斜的 | |
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aluminium
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| n.铝 (=aluminum) | |
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fabric
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| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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