In relating all I know of America, I surely must not omit so important a feature as the cooking. There are sundry1 anomalies in the mode of serving even a first-rate table; but as these are altogether matters of custom, they by no means indicate either indifference2 or neglect in this important business; and whether castors are placed on the table or on the sideboard; whether soup, fish, patties, and salad be eaten in orthodox order or not, signifies but little. I am hardly capable, I fear, of giving a very erudite critique on the subject; general observations therefore must suffice. The ordinary mode of living is abundant, but not delicate. They consume an extraordinary quantity of bacon. Ham and beaf-steaks appear morning, noon, and night. In eating, they mix things together with the strangest incongruity3 imaginable. I have seen eggs and oysters4 eaten together: the sempiternal ham with apple-sauce; beefsteak with stewed5 peaches; and salt fish with onions. The bread is everywhere excellent, but they rarely enjoy it themselves, as they insist upon eating horrible half-baked hot rolls both morning and evening. The butter is tolerable; but they have seldom such cream as every little dairy produces in England; in fact, the cows are very roughly kept, compared with our’s. Common vegetables are abundant and very fine. I never saw sea-cale or cauliflowers, and either from the want of summer rain, or the want of care, the harvest of green vegetables is much sooner over than with us. They eat the Indian corn in a great variety of forms; sometimes it is dressed green, and eaten like peas; sometimes it is broken to pieces when dry, boiled plain, and brought to table like rice; this dish is called hominy. The flour of it is made into at least a dozen different sorts of cakes; but in my opinion all bad. This flour, mixed in the proportion of one-third with fine wheat, makes by far the best bread I ever tasted.
I never saw turbot, salmon6, or fresh cod7; but the rock and shad are excellent. There is a great want of skill in the composition of sauces; not only with fish, but with every thing. They use very few made dishes, and I never saw any that would be approved by our savants. They have an excellent wild duck, called the Canvass8 Back, which, if delicately served, would surpass the black cock; but the game is very inferior to our’s; they have no hares, and I never saw a pheasant. They seldom indulge in second courses, with all their ingenious temptations to the eating a second dinner; but almost every table has its dessert, (invariably pronounced desart) which is placed on the table before the cloth is removed, and consists of pastry9, preserved fruits, and creams. They are “extravagantly fond,” to use their own phrase, of puddings, pies, and all kinds of “sweets,” particularly the ladies; but are by no means such connoisseurs10 in soups and ragouts as the gastronomes of Europe. Almost every one drinks water at table, and by a strange contradiction, in the country where hard drinking is more prevalent than in any other, there is less wine taken at dinner; ladies rarely exceed one glass, and the great majority of females never take any. In fact, the hard drinking, so universally acknowledged, does not take place at jovial11 dinners, but, to speak plain English, in solitary12 dram-drinking. Coffee is not served immediately after dinner, but makes part of the serious matter of tea-drinking, which comes some hours later. Mixed dinner parties of ladies and gentlemen are very rare, and unless several foreigners are present, but little conversation passes at table. It certainly does not, in my opinion, add to the well ordering a dinner table, to set the gentlemen at one end of it, and the ladies at the other; but it is very rarely that you find it otherwise.
Their large evening parties are supremely14 dull; the men sometimes play cards by themselves, but if a lady plays, it must not be for money; no ecarte, no chess; very little music, and that little lamentably15 bad. Among the blacks, I heard some good voices, singing in tune16; but I scarcely ever heard a white American, male or female, go through an air without being out of tune before the end of it; nor did I ever meet any trace of science in the singing I heard in society. To eat inconceivable quantities of cake, ice, and pickled oysters — and to show half their revenue in silks and satins, seem to be the chief object they have in these parties.
The most agreeable meetings, I was assured by all the young people, were those to which no married women are admitted; of the truth of this statement I have not the least doubt. These exclusive meetings occur frequently, and often last to a late hour; on these occasions, I believe, they generally dance. At regular balls, married ladies are admitted, but seldom take much part in the amusement. The refreshments17 are always profuse18 and costly19, but taken in a most uncomfortable manner. I have known many private balls, where every thing was on the most liberal scale of expense, where the gentlemen sat down to supper in one room, while the ladies took theirs, standing20, in another.
What we call picnics are very rare, and when attempted, do not often succeed well. The two sexes can hardly mix for the greater part of a day without great restraint and ennui21; it is quite contrary to their general habits; the favourite indulgences of the gentlemen (smoking cigars and drinking spirits), can neither be indulged in with decency22, nor resigned with complacency.
The ladies have strange ways of adding to their charms. They powder themselves immoderately, face, neck, and arms, with pulverised starch23; the effect is indescribably disagreeable by daylight, and not very favourable24 at any time. They are also most unhappily partial to false hair, which they wear in surprising quantities; this is the more to be lamented25, as they generally have very fine hair of their own. I suspect this fashion to arise from an indolent mode of making their toilet, and from accomplished26 ladies’ maids not being very abundant; it is less trouble to append a bunch of waving curls here, there, and every where, than to keep their native tresses in perfect order.
Though the expense of the ladies’ dress greatly exceeds, in proportion to their general style of living, that of the ladies of Europe, it is very far (excepting in Philadelphia) from being in good taste. They do not consult the seasons in the colours or in the style of their costume; I have often shivered at seeing a young beauty picking her way through the snow with a pale rose-coloured bonnet27, set on the very top of her head: I knew one young lady whose pretty little ear was actually frostbitten from being thus exposed. They never wear muffs or boots, and appear extremely shocked at the sight of comfortable walking shoes and cotton stockings, even when they have to step to their sleighs over ice and snow. They walk in the middle of winter with their poor little toes pinched into a miniature slipper28, incapable29 of excluding as much moisture as might bedew a primrose30. I must say in their excuse, however, that they have, almost universally, extremely pretty feet. They do not walk well, nor, in fact, do they ever appear to advantage when in movement. I know not why this should be, for they have abundance of French dancing-masters among them, but somehow or other it is the fact. I fancied I could often trace a mixture of affectation and of shyness in their little mincing31 unsteady step, and the ever changing position of the hands. They do not dance well; perhaps I should rather say they do not look well when dancing; lovely as their faces are, they cannot, in a position that exhibits the whole person, atone32 for the want of tournure, and for the universal defect in the formation of the bust33, which is rarely full, or gracefully35 formed.
I never saw an American man walk or stand well; notwithstanding their frequent militia37 drillings, they are nearly all hollow chested and round shouldered: perhaps this is occasioned by no officer daring to say to a brother free-born “hold up your head;” whatever the cause, the effect is very remarkable38 to a stranger. In stature39, and in physiognomy, a great majority of the population, both male and female, are strikingly handsome, but they know not how to do their own honours; half as much comeliness40 elsewhere would produce ten times as much effect.
Nothing can exceed their activity and perseverance41 in all kinds of speculation42, handicraft, and enterprise, which promises a profitable pecuniary43 result. I heard an Englishman, who had been long resident in America, declare that in following, in meeting, or in overtaking, in the street, on the road, or in the field, at the theatre, the coffee-house, or at home, he had never overheard Americans conversing44 without the word DOLLAR being pronounced between them. Such unity45 of purpose, such sympathy of feeling, can, I believe, be found nowhere else, except, perhaps, in an ants’ nest. The result is exactly what might be anticipated. This sordid46 object, for ever before their eyes, must inevitably47 produce a sordid tone of mind, and, worse still, it produces a seared and blunted conscience on all questions of probity48. I know not a more striking evidence of the low tone of morality which is generated by this universal pursuit of money, than the manner in which the New England States are described by Americans. All agree in saying that they present a spectacle of industry and prosperity delightful49 to behold50, and this is the district and the population most constantly quoted as the finest specimen51 of their admirable country; yet I never met a single individual in any part of the Union who did not paint these New Englanders as sly, grinding, selfish, and tricking. The yankees (as the New Englanders are called) will avow52 these qualities themselves with a complacent53 smile, and boast that no people on the earth can match them at over reaching in a bargain. I have heard them unblushingly relate stories of their cronies and friends, which, if believed among us, would banish54 the heroes from the fellowship of honest men for ever; and all this is uttered with a simplicity55 which sometimes led me to doubt if the speakers knew what honour and honesty meant. Yet the Americans declare that “they are the most moral people upon earth.” Again and again I have heard this asserted, not only in conversation, and by their writings, but even from the pulpit. Such broad assumption of superior virtue56 demands examination, and after four years of attentive57 and earnest observation and enquiry, my honest conviction is, that the standard of moral character in the United States is very greatly lower than in Europe. Of their religion, as it appears outwardly, I have had occasion to speak frequently; I pretend not to judge the heart, but, without any uncharitable presumption58, I must take permission to say, that both Protestant England and Catholic France show an infinitely59 superior religious and moral aspect to mortal observation, both as to reverend decency of external observance, and as to the inward fruit of honest dealing60 between man and man.
In other respects I think no one will be disappointed who visits the country, expecting to find no more than common sense might teach him to look for, namely, a vast continent, by far the greater part of which is still in the state in which nature left it, and a busy, bustling61, industrious62 population, hacking63 and hewing64 their way through it. What greatly increases the interest of this spectacle, is the wonderful facility for internal commerce, furnished by the rivers, lakes, and canals, which thread the country in every direction, producing a rapidity of progress in all commercial and agricultural speculation altogether unequalled. This remarkable feature is perceptible in every part of the union into which the fast spreading population has hitherto found its way, and forms, I think, the most remarkable and interesting peculiarity65 of the country. I hardly remember a single town where vessels67 of some description or other may not constantly be seen in full activity.
Their carriages of every kind are very unlike ours; those belonging to private individuals seem all constructed with a view to summer use, for which they are extremely well calculated, but they are by no means comfortable in winter. The waggons68 and cars are built with great strength, which is indeed necessary, from the roads they often have to encounter. The stagecoaches69 are heavier and much less comfortable than those of France; to those of England they can bear no comparison. I never saw any harness that I could call handsome, nor any equipage which, as to horses, carriage, harness, and servants, could be considered as complete. The sleighs are delightful, and constructed at so little expense that I wonder we have not all got them in England, lying by, in waiting for the snow, which often remains70 with us long enough to permit their use. Sleighing is much more generally enjoyed by night than by day, for what reason I could never discover, unless it be, that no gentlemen are to be found disengaged from business in the mornings. Nothing, certainly, can be more agreeable than the gliding71 smoothly72 and rapidly along, deep sunk in soft furs, the moon shining with almost midday splendour, the air of crystal brightness, and the snow sparkling on every side, as if it were sprinkled with diamonds. And then the noiseless movement of the horses, so mysterious and unwonted, and the gentle tinkling73 of the bells you meet and carry, all help at once to soothe74 and excite the spirits: in short, I had not the least objection to sleighing by night, I only wished to sleigh by day also.
Almost every resident in the country has a carriage they call a carryall, which name I suspect to be a corruption75 of the cariole so often mentioned in the pretty Canadian story of Emily Montagu. It is clumsy enough, certainly, but extremely convenient, and admirably calculated, with its thick roof and moveable draperies, for every kind of summer excursion.
Their steam-boats, were the social arrangements somewhat improved, would be delightful, as a mode of travelling; but they are very seldom employed for excursions of mere76 amusement: nor do I remember seeing pleasure-boats, properly so called, at any of the numerous places where they might be used with so much safety and enjoyment77.
How often did our homely78 adage79 recur80 to me, “All work and no play would make Jack81 a dull boy;” Jonathan is a very dull boy. We are by no means so gay as our lively neighbours on the other side the Channel, but, compared with Americans, we are whirligigs and tetotums; every day is a holyday, and every night a festival.
Perhaps if the ladies had quite their own way, a little more relaxation82 would be permitted; but there is one remarkable peculiarity in their manners which precludes83 the possibility of any dangerous outbreaking of the kind: few ladies have any command of ready money entrusted84 to them. I have been a hundred times present when bills for a few dollars, perhaps for one, have been brought for payment to ladies living in perfectly85 easy circumstances, who have declared themselves without money, and referred the claimant to their husbands for payment. On every occasion where immediate13 disbursement86 is required it is the same; even in shopping for ready cash they say, “send a bill home with the things, and my husband will give you a draft.”
I think that it was during my stay at Washington, that I was informed of a government regulation, which appeared to me curious; I therefore record it here.
Every Deputy Post-Master is required to insert in his return the title of every newspaper received at his office for distribution. This return is laid before the Secretary of State, who, perfectly knowing the political character of each newspaper, is thus enabled to feel the pulse of every limb of the monster mob. This is a well imagined device for getting a peep at the politics of a country where newspapers make part of the daily food, but is it quite consistent with their entire freedom? I do not believe we have any such tricks to regulate the disposal of offices and appointments.
I believe it was in Indiana that Mr. T. met with a printed notice relative to the payment of taxes, which I preserved as a curious sample of the manner in which the free citizens are coaxed87 and reasoned into obeying the laws.
“LOOK OUT DELINQUENTS”
“Those indebted to me for taxes, fees, notes, and accounts, are specially88 requested to call and pay the same on or before the 1st day of December, 1828, as no longer indulgence will be given. I have called time and again, by advertisement and otherwise, to little effect; but now the time has come when my situation requires immediate payment from all indebted to me. It is impossible for me to pay off the amount of the duplicates of taxes and my other debts without recovering the same of those from whom it is due. I am at a loss to know the reason why those charged with taxes neglect to pay; from the negligence89 of many it would seem that they think the money is mine, or I have funds to discharge the taxes due to the State, and that I can wait with them until it suits their convenience to pay. The money is not mine; neither have I the funds to settle amount of the duplicate. My only resort is to collect; in doing so I should be sorry to have to resort to the authority given me by law for the recovery of the same. It should be the first object of every good citizen to pay his taxes, for it is in that way government is supported. Why are taxes assessed unless they are collected? Depend upon it, I shall proceed to collect agreeably to law, so govern yourselves accordingly.
JOHN SPENCER,
Sh’ff and Collector, D.C.
Nov 20, 1828.”
“N.B. On Thursday, the 27th inst. A. St. Clair and Geo. H. Dunn, Esqrs. depart for Indianopolis; I wish as many as can pay to do so, to enable me to forward as much as possible, to save the twenty-one per cent, that will be charged against me after the 8th of December next.
JS.”
The first autumn I passed in America, I was surprised to find a great and very oppressive return of heat, accompanied with a heavy mistiness90 in the air, long after the summer heats were over; when this state of the atmosphere comes on, they say, “we have got to the Indian summer.” On desiring to have this phrase explained, I was told that the phenomenon described as the Indian Summer was occasioned by the Indians setting fire to the woods, which spread heat and smoke to a great distance; but I afterwards met with the following explanation, which appears to me much more reasonable. “The Indian summer is so called because, at the particular period of the year in which it obtains, the Indians break up their village communities, and go to the interior to prepare for their winter hunting. This season seems to mark a dividing line, between the heat of summer, and the cold of winter, and is, from its mildness, suited to these migrations92. The cause of this heat is the slow combustion93 of the leaves and other vegetable matter of the boundless94 and interminable forests. Those who at this season of the year have penetrated95 these forests, know all about it. To the feet the heat is quite sensible, whilst the ascending96 vapour warms every thing it embraces, and spreading out into the wide atmosphere, fills the circuit of the heavens with its peculiar66 heat and smokiness.”
This unnatural97 heat sufficiently98 accounts for the sickliness of the American autumn. The effect of it is extremely distressing99 to the nerves, even when the general health continues good; to me, it was infinitely more disagreeable than the glowing heat of the dog-days.
A short time before we arrived in America, the Duke of Saxe-Weimar made a tour of the United States. I heard many persons speak of his unaffected and amiable100 manners, yet he could not escape the dislike which every trace of gentlemanly feeling is sure to create among the ordinary class of Americans. As an amusing instance of this, I made the following extract from a newspaper.
“A correspondent of the Charlestown Gazette tells an anecdote101 connected with the Duke of Saxe-Weimar’s recent journey through our country, which we do not recollect102 to have heard before, although some such story is told of the veritable Capt. Basil Hall. The scene occurred on the route between Augusta and Milledgeville; it seems that the sagacious Duke engaged three or four, or more seats, in the regular stage, for the accommodation of himself and suite91, and thought by this that he had secured the monopoly of the vehicle. Not so, however; a traveller came along, and entered his name upon the book, and secured his seat by payment of the customary charges. To the Duke’s great surprise on entering the stage, he found our traveller comfortably housed in one of the most eligible103 seats, wrapt up in his fear-nought, and snoring like a buffalo104. The Duke, greatly irritated, called for the question of consideration. He demanded, in broken English, the cause of the gross intrusion, and insisted in a very princely manner, though not, it seems in very princely language, upon the incumbent105 vacating the seat in which he had made himself so impudently106 at home. But the Duke had yet to learn his first lesson of republicanism. The driver was one of those sturdy southrons, who can always, and at a moment’s warning, whip his weight in wild cats: and he as resolutely107 told the Duke, that the traveller was as good, if not a better man, than himself; and that no alteration108 of the existing arrangement could be permitted. Saxe-Weimar became violent at this opposition109, so unlike any to which his education hitherto had ever subjected him, and threatened John with the application of the bamboo. This was one of those threats which in Georgia dialect would subject a man to “a rowing up salt river;” and, accordingly, down leaped our driver from his box, and peeling himself for the combat, he leaped about the vehicle in the most wild-boar style, calling upon the prince of a five acre patch to put his threat in execution. But he of the star refused to make up issue in the way suggested, contenting himself with assuring the enraged110 southron of a complaint to his excellency the Governor, on arriving at the seat of government. This threat was almost as unlucky as the former, for it wrought111 the individual for whom it was intended into that species of fury, which, through discriminating112 in its madness, is nevertheless without much limit in its violence, and he swore that the Governor might go to —, and for his part he would just as leave lick the Governor as the Duke; he’d like no better fun than to give both Duke and Governor a dressing113 in the same breath; could do it, he had little doubt, &c. &c.; and instigating114 one fist to diverge115 into the face of the marvelling116 and panic-stricken nobleman, with the other he thrust him down into a seat alongside the traveller, whose presence had been originally of such sore discomfort117 to his excellency, and bidding the attendants jump in with their discomfited118 master, he mounted his box in triumph, and went on his journey.” I fully36 believe that this brutal119 history would be as distasteful to the travelled and polished few who are to be found scattered120 through the Union, as it is to me: but if they do not deem the possibility of such a scene to be a national degradation121, I differ from them. The American people (speaking of the great mass) have no more idea of what constitutes the difference between this “Prince of a five acre patch,” and themselves, than a dray-horse has of estimating the points of the elegant victor of the race-course. Could the dray-horse speak, when expected to yield the daintiest stall to his graceful34 rival, he would say, “a horse is a horse;” and is it not with the same logic122 that the transatlantic Houynnhnm puts down all superiority with “a man is a man?”
This story justifies123 the reply of Talleyrand, when asked by Napoleon what he thought of the Americans, “Sire, ce sont des fiers cochons, et des cochons fiers.”
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sundry
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indifference
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incongruity
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oysters
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stewed
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salmon
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| n.鲑，大马哈鱼，橙红色的 | |
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cod
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canvass
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pastry
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connoisseurs
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jovial
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solitary
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immediate
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supremely
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lamentably
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tune
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| n.调子；和谐，协调；v.调音，调节，调整 | |
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refreshments
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profuse
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costly
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standing
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ennui
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decency
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starch
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favourable
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lamented
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accomplished
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bonnet
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slipper
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incapable
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primrose
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mincing
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atone
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bust
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graceful
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gracefully
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militia
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remarkable
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stature
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comeliness
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perseverance
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speculation
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pecuniary
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conversing
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unity
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sordid
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| adj.肮脏的，不干净的，卑鄙的，暗淡的 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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48
probity
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| n.刚直；廉洁，正直 | |
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49
delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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50
behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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51
specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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52
avow
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| v.承认，公开宣称 | |
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53
complacent
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| adj.自满的；自鸣得意的 | |
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54
banish
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| vt.放逐，驱逐；消除，排除 | |
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55
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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56
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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attentive
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| adj.注意的，专心的；关心(别人)的，殷勤的 | |
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58
presumption
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| n.推测，可能性，冒昧，放肆，[法律]推定 | |
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59
infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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60
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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61
bustling
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| adj.喧闹的 | |
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62
industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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63
hacking
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| n.非法访问计算机系统和数据库的活动 | |
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64
hewing
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| v.（用斧、刀等）砍、劈( hew的现在分词 )；砍成；劈出；开辟 | |
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65
peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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67
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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68
waggons
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| 四轮的运货马车( waggon的名词复数 )； 铁路货车； 小手推车 | |
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stagecoaches
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| n.驿马车( stagecoach的名词复数 ) | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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gliding
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| v. 滑翔 adj. 滑动的 | |
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smoothly
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| adv.平滑地，顺利地，流利地，流畅地 | |
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tinkling
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| n.丁当作响声 | |
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soothe
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| v.安慰；使平静；使减轻；缓和；奉承 | |
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corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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76
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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homely
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| adj.家常的，简朴的；不漂亮的 | |
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adage
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| n.格言，古训 | |
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recur
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| vi.复发，重现，再发生 | |
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81
jack
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| n.插座，千斤顶，男人；v.抬起，提醒，扛举；n.（Jake）杰克 | |
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82
relaxation
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| n.松弛，放松；休息；消遣；娱乐 | |
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precludes
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| v.阻止( preclude的第三人称单数 )；排除；妨碍；使…行不通 | |
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entrusted
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| v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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disbursement
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| n.支付，付款 | |
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coaxed
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| v.哄，用好话劝说( coax的过去式和过去分词 )；巧言骗取；哄劝，劝诱 | |
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88
specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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negligence
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| n.疏忽，玩忽，粗心大意 | |
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mistiness
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| n.雾，模糊，不清楚 | |
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suite
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| n.一套(家具)；套房；随从人员 | |
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migrations
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| n.迁移，移居( migration的名词复数 ) | |
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93
combustion
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| n.燃烧；氧化；骚动 | |
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boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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96
ascending
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| adj.上升的，向上的 | |
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97
unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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98
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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99
distressing
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| a.使人痛苦的 | |
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100
amiable
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| adj.和蔼可亲的，友善的，亲切的 | |
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101
anecdote
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| n.轶事，趣闻，短故事 | |
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102
recollect
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| v.回忆，想起，记起，忆起，记得 | |
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103
eligible
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| adj.有条件被选中的；(尤指婚姻等)合适(意)的 | |
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104
buffalo
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| n.(北美)野牛；(亚洲)水牛 | |
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105
incumbent
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| adj.成为责任的，有义务的；现任的，在职的 | |
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106
impudently
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107
resolutely
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| adj.坚决地，果断地 | |
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108
alteration
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| n.变更，改变；蚀变 | |
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109
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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110
enraged
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| 使暴怒( enrage的过去式和过去分词 )； 歜； 激愤 | |
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111
wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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112
discriminating
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| a.有辨别能力的 | |
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113
dressing
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| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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114
instigating
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| v.使（某事物）开始或发生，鼓动( instigate的现在分词 ) | |
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115
diverge
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| v.分叉，分歧，离题，使...岔开，使转向 | |
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116
marvelling
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| v.惊奇，对…感到惊奇( marvel的现在分词 ) | |
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117
discomfort
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| n.不舒服，不安，难过，困难，不方便 | |
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118
discomfited
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| v.使为难( discomfit的过去式和过去分词)；使狼狈；使挫折；挫败 | |
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119
brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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120
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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121
degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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122
logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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123
justifies
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| 证明…有理( justify的第三人称单数 )； 为…辩护； 对…作出解释； 为…辩解（或辩护） | |
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