Death of Filippo Visconti, duke of Milan — The Milanese appoint Sforza their captain — Milan becomes a republic — The pope endeavors to restore peace to Italy — The Venetians oppose this design — Alfonso attacks the Florentines — The neighborhood of Piombino becomes the principal theater of war — Scarcity1 in the Florentine camp — Disorders2 occur in the Neapolitan and Florentine armies — Alfonso sues for peace and is compelled to retreat — Pavia surrenders to the count — Displeasure of the Milanese — The count besieges3 Caravaggio — The Venetians endeavor to relieve the place — They are routed by the count before Caravaggio.
Pope Eugenius being dead, was succeeded by Nicholas V. The count had his whole army at Cotignola, ready to pass into Lombardy, when intelligence was brought him of the death of Filippo, which happened on the last day of August, 1447. This event greatly afflicted5 him, for he doubted whether his troops were in readiness, on account of their arrears6 of pay; he feared the Venetians, who were his armed enemies, he having recently forsaken7 them and taken part with the duke; he was in apprehension8 from Alfonso, his inveterate9 foe10; he had no hope from the pontiff or the Florentines; for the latter were allies of the Venetians, and he had seized the territories of the former. However, he resolved to face his fortune and be guided by circumstances; for it often happens, that when engaged in business valuable ideas are suggested, which in a state of inaction would never have occurred. He had great hopes, that if the Milanese were disposed to defend themselves against the ambition of the Venetians, they could make use of no other power but his. Therefore, he proceeded confidently into the Bolognese territory, thence to Modena and Reggio, halted with his forces upon the Lenza, and sent to offer his services at Milan. On the death of the duke, part of the Milanese were inclined to establish a republic; others wished to choose a prince, and of these, one part favored the count, and another Alfonso. However, the majority being in favor of freedom, they prevailed over the rest, and organized a republic, to which many cities of the Duchy refused obedience12; for they, too, desired to live in the enjoyment13 of their liberty, and even those who did not embrace such views, refused to submit to the sovereignty of the Milanese. Lodi and Piacenza surrendered themselves to the Venetians; Pavia and Parma became free. This confused state of things being known to the count, he proceeded to Cremona, where his ambassadors and those of the Milanese arranged for him to command the forces of the new republic, with the same remuneration he had received from the duke at the time of his decease. To this they added the possession of Brescia, until Verona was recovered, when he should have that city and restore Brescia to the Milanese.
Before the duke’s death, Pope Nicholas, after his assumption of the pontificate, sought to restore peace among the princes of Italy, and with this object endeavored, in conjunction with the ambassadors sent by the Florentines to congratulate him on his accession, to appoint a diet at Ferrara to attempt either the arrangement of a long truce14, or the establishment of peace. A congress was accordingly held in that city, of the pope’s legate and the Venetian, ducal, and Florentine representatives. King Alfonso had no envoy15 there. He was at Tivoli with a great body of horse and foot, and favorable to the duke; both having resolved, that having gained the count over to their side, they would openly attack the Florentines and Venetians, and till the arrival of the count in Lombardy, take part in the treaty for peace at Ferrara, at which, though the king did not appear, he engaged to concur16 in whatever course the duke should adopt. The conference lasted several days, and after many debates, resolved on either a truce for five years, or a permanent peace, whichsoever the duke should approve; and the ducal ambassadors, having returned to Milan to learn his decision, found him dead. Notwithstanding this, the Milanese were disposed to adopt the resolutions of the assembly, but the Venetians refused, indulging great hopes of becoming masters of Lombardy, particularly as Lodi and Piacenza, immediately after the duke’s death, had submitted to them. They trusted that either by force or by treaty they could strip Milan of her power; and then so press her, as to compel her also to surrender before any assistance could arrive; and they were the more confident of this from seeing the Florentines involved in war with King Alfonso.
The king being at Tivoli, and designing to pursue his enterprise against Tuscany, as had been arranged between himself and Filippo, judging that the war now commenced in Lombardy would give him both time and opportunity, and wishing to have a footing in the Florentine state before he openly commenced hostilities17, opened a secret understanding with the fortress18 of Cennina, in the Val d’Arno Superiore, and took possession of it. The Florentines, surprised with this unexpected event, perceiving the king already in action, and resolved to do them all the injury in his power, hired forces, created a council of ten for management of the war, and prepared for the conflict in their usual manner. The king was already in the Siennese, and used his utmost endeavors to reduce the city, but the inhabitants of Sienna were firm in their attachment19 to the Florentines, and refused to receive him within their walls or into any of their territories. They furnished him with provisions, alleging20 in excuse, the enemy’s power and their inability to resist. The king, finding he could not enter by the Val d’Arno, as he had first intended, both because Cennina had been already retaken, and because the Florentines were now in some measure prepared for their defense21, turned toward Volterra, and occupied many fortresses22 in that territory. Thence he proceeded toward Pisa, and with the assistance of Fazio and Arrigo de’ Conti, of the Gherardesca, took some castles, and issuing from them, assailed23 Campiglia, but could not take it, the place being defended by the Florentines, and it being now in the depth of winter. Upon this the king, leaving garrisons25 in the places he had taken to harass26 the surrounding country, withdrew with the remainder of his army to quarters in the Siennese. The Florentines, aided by the season, used the most active exertions27 to provide themselves troops, whose captains were Federigo, lord of Urbino, and Gismondo Malatesti da Rimino, who, though mutual28 foes29, were kept so united by the prudence30 of the commissaries, Neri di Gino and Bernardetto de’ Medici, that they broke up their quarters while the weather was still very severe and recovered not only the places that had been taken in the territory of Pisa, but also the Pomerancie in the neighborhood of Volterra, and so checked the king’s troops, which at first had overrun the Maremma, that they could scarcely retain the places they had been left to garrison24.
Upon the return of the spring the commissaries halted with their whole force, consisting of five thousand horse and two thousand foot, at the Spedaletto. The king approached with his army, amounting to fifteen thousand men, within three miles of Campiglia, but when it was expected he would attack the place he fell upon Piombino, hoping, as it was insufficiently31 provided, to take it with very little trouble, and thus acquire a very important position, the loss of which would be severely32 felt by the Florentines; for from it he would be able to exhaust them with a long war, obtain his own provision by sea, and harass the whole territory of Pisa. They were greatly alarmed at this attack, and, considering that if they could remain with their army among the woods of Campiglia, the king would be compelled to retire either in defeat or disgrace. With this view they equipped four galleys33 at Livorno, and having succeeded in throwing three hundred infantry34 into Piombino, took up their own position at the Caldane, a place where it would be difficult to attack them; and they thought it would be dangerous to encamp among the thickets35 of the plain.
The Florentine army depended for provisions on the surrounding places, which, being poor and thinly inhabited, had difficulty in supplying them. Consequently the troops suffered, particularly from want of wine, for none being produced in that vicinity, and unable to procure36 it from more distant places, it was impossible to obtain a sufficient quantity. But the king, though closely pressed by the Florentines, was well provided except in forage37, for he obtained everything else by sea. The Florentines, desirous to supply themselves in the same manner, loaded four vessels38 with provisions, but, upon their approach, they were attacked by seven of the king’s galleys, which took two of them and put the rest to flight. This disaster made them despair of procuring39 provisions, so that two hundred men of a foraging40 party, principally for want of wine, deserted41 to the king, and the rest complained that they could not live without it, in a situation where the heat was so excessive and the water bad. The commissaries therefore determined42 to quit the place, and endeavor to recover those castles which still remained in the enemy’s power; who, on his part, though not suffering from want of provisions, and greatly superior in numbers, found his enterprise a failure, from the ravages43 made in his army by those diseases which the hot season produces in marshy44 localities; and which prevailed to such an extent that many died daily, and nearly all were affected45. These circumstances occasioned overtures46 of peace. The king demanded fifty thousand florins, and the possession of Piombino. When the terms were under consideration, many citizens, desirous of peace, would have accepted them, declaring there was no hope of bringing to a favorable conclusion a war which required so much money to carry it on. But Neri Capponi going to Florence, placed the matter in a more correct light, and it was then unanimously determined to reject the proposal, and take the lord of Piombino under their protection, with an alliance offensive and defensive47, provided he did not abandon them, but assist in their defense as hitherto. The king being informed of this resolution, saw that, with his reduced army, he could not gain the place, and withdrew in the same condition as if completely routed, leaving behind him two thousand dead. With the remainder of his sick troops he retired48 to the Siennese territory, and thence to his kingdom, incensed49 against the Florentines, and threatening them with new wars upon the return of spring.
While these events were proceeding50 in Tuscany the Count Sforza, having become leader of the Milanese forces, strenuously51 endeavored to secure the friendship of Francesco Piccinino, who was also in their service, that he might support him in his enterprises, or be less disposed to do him injury. He then took the field with his army, upon which the people of Pavia, conscious of their inability to resist him, and unwilling52 to obey the Milanese, offered to submit themselves to his authority, on condition that he should not subject them to the power of Milan. The count desired the possession of Pavia, and considered the circumstance a happy omen53, as it would enable him to give a color to his designs. He was not restrained from treachery either by fear or shame; for great men consider failure disgraceful,— a fraudulent success the contrary. But he was apprehensive54 that his possession of the city would excite the animosity of the Milanese, and perhaps induce them to throw themselves under the power of the Venetians. If he refused to accept the offer, he would have occasion to fear the duke of Savoy, to whom many citizens were inclined to submit themselves; and either alternative would deprive him of the sovereignty of Lombardy. Concluding there was less danger in taking possession of the city than in allowing another to have it, he determined to accept the proposal of the people of Pavia, trusting he would be able to satisfy the Milanese, to whom he pointed55 out the danger they must have incurred56 had he not complied with it; for her citizens would have surrendered themselves to the Venetians or to the duke of Savoy; so that in either case they would have been deprived of the government, and therefore they ought to be more willing to have himself as their neighbor and friend, than a hostile power such as either of the others, and their enemy. The Milanese were upon this occasion greatly perplexed57, imagining they had discovered the count’s ambition, and the end he had in view; but they thought it desirable to conceal58 their fears, for they did not know, if the count were to desert them, to whom they could have recourse except the Venetians, whose pride and tyranny they naturally dreaded59. They therefore resolved not to break with the count, but by his assistance remedy the evils with which they were threatened, hoping that when freed from them they might rescue themselves from him also; for at that time they were assailed not only by the Venetians but by the Genoese and the duke of Savoy, in the name of Charles of Orleans, the son of a sister of Filippo, but whom the count easily vanquished60. Thus their only remaining enemies were the Venetians, who, with a powerful army, determined to occupy their territories, and had already taken possession of Lodi and Piacenza, before which latter place the count encamped; and, after a long siege, took and pillaged61 the city. Winter being set in, he led his forces into quarters, and then withdrew to Cremona, where, during the cold season, he remained in repose62 with his wife.
In the spring, the Venetian and Milanese armies again took the field. It was the design of the Milanese, first to recover Lodi and then to come to terms with the Venetians; for the expenses of the war had become very great, and they were doubtful of their general’s sincerity63, so that they were anxious alike for the repose of peace, and for security against the count. They therefore resolved that the army should march to the siege of Carravaggio, hoping that Lodi would surrender, on that fortress being wrested64 from the enemy’s hands. The count obeyed, though he would have preferred crossing the Adda and attacking the Brescian territory. Having encamped before Caravaggio, he so strongly entrenched65 himself, that if the enemy attempted to relieve the place, they would have to attack him at a great disadvantage. The Venetian army, led by Micheletto, approached within two bowshots of the enemy’s camp, and many skirmishes ensued. The count continued to press the fortress, and reduced it to the very last extremity66, which greatly distressed67 the Venetians, since they knew the loss of it would involve the total failure of their expedition. Very different views were entertained by their military officers respecting the best mode of relieving the place, but they saw no course open except to attack the enemy in his trenches68, in spite of all obstacles. The castle was, however, considered of such paramount69 importance, that the Venetian senate, though naturally timid, and averse70 to all hazardous71 undertakings72, chose rather to risk everything than allow it to fall into the hands of the enemy.
They therefore resolved to attack the count at all events, and early the next morning commenced their assault upon a point which was least defended. At the first charge, as commonly happens in a surprise, Francesco’s whole army was thrown into dismay. Order, however, was soon so completely restored by the count, that the enemy, after various efforts to gain the outworks, were repulsed73 and put to flight; and so entirely74 routed, that of twelve thousand horse only one thousand escaped the hands of the Milanese, who took possession of all the carriages and military stores; nor had the Venetians ever before suffered such a thorough rout4 and overthrow75. Among the plunder76 and prisoners, crouching77 down, as if to escape observation, was found a Venetian commissary, who, in the course of the war and before the fight, had spoken contemptuously of the count, calling him “bastard,” and “base-born.” Being made prisoner, he remembered his faults, and fearing punishment, being taken before the count, was agonized78 with terror; and, as is usual with mean minds (in prosperity insolent79, in adversity abject80 and cringing), prostrated81 himself, weeping and begging pardon for the offenses82 he had committed. The count, taking him by the arm, raised him up, and encouraged him to hope for the best. He then said he wondered how a man so prudent83 and respectable as himself, could so far err11 as to speak disparagingly84 of those who did not merit it; and as regarded the insinuations which he had made against him, he really did not know how Sforza his father, and Madonna Lucia his mother, had proceeded together, not having been there, and having no opportunity of interfering85 in the matter, so that he was not liable either to blame or praise. However, he knew very well, that in regard to his own actions he had conducted himself so that no one could blame him; and in proof of this he would refer both the Venetian senate and himself to what had happened that day. He then advised him in future to be more respectful in speaking of others, and more cautious in regard to his own proceedings86.
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1
scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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disorders
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| n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调 | |
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besieges
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| 包围，围困，围攻( besiege的第三人称单数 ) | |
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rout
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| n.溃退，溃败；v.击溃，打垮 | |
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afflicted
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| 使受痛苦，折磨( afflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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arrears
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| n.到期未付之债，拖欠的款项；待做的工作 | |
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Forsaken
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| adj. 被遗忘的, 被抛弃的 动词forsake的过去分词 | |
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apprehension
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| n.理解，领悟；逮捕，拘捕；忧虑 | |
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inveterate
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| adj.积习已深的，根深蒂固的 | |
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foe
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| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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err
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| vi.犯错误，出差错 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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truce
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| n.休战，(争执，烦恼等的)缓和；v.以停战结束 | |
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envoy
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| n.使节，使者，代表，公使 | |
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concur
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| v.同意，意见一致，互助，同时发生 | |
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hostilities
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| n.战争；敌意(hostility的复数)；敌对状态；战事 | |
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fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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attachment
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| n.附属物，附件；依恋；依附 | |
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alleging
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| 断言，宣称，辩解( allege的现在分词 ) | |
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defense
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| n.防御，保卫；[pl.]防务工事；辩护，答辩 | |
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fortresses
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| 堡垒，要塞( fortress的名词复数 ) | |
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assailed
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| v.攻击( assail的过去式和过去分词 )；困扰；质问；毅然应对 | |
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garrison
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| n.卫戍部队；驻地，卫戍区；vt.派(兵)驻防 | |
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garrisons
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| 守备部队，卫戍部队( garrison的名词复数 ) | |
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harass
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| vt.使烦恼，折磨，骚扰 | |
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exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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prudence
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| n.谨慎，精明，节俭 | |
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insufficiently
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| adv.不够地，不能胜任地 | |
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severely
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| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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galleys
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| n.平底大船，战舰( galley的名词复数 )；（船上或航空器上的）厨房 | |
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infantry
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| n.[总称]步兵(部队) | |
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thickets
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| n.灌木丛( thicket的名词复数 )；丛状物 | |
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procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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forage
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| n.(牛马的)饲料，粮草；v.搜寻，翻寻 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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foraging
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| v.搜寻（食物），尤指动物觅（食）( forage的现在分词 )；（尤指用手）搜寻（东西） | |
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deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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marshy
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| adj.沼泽的 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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overtures
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| n.主动的表示，提议；（向某人做出的）友好表示、姿态或提议( overture的名词复数 )；（歌剧、芭蕾舞、音乐剧等的）序曲，前奏曲 | |
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defensive
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| adj.防御的；防卫的；防守的 | |
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retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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incensed
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| 盛怒的 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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strenuously
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| adv.奋发地，费力地 | |
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unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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omen
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| n.征兆，预兆；vt.预示 | |
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apprehensive
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| adj.担心的，恐惧的，善于领会的 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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perplexed
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| adj.不知所措的 | |
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conceal
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，隐蔽 | |
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dreaded
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| adj.令人畏惧的；害怕的v.害怕，恐惧，担心( dread的过去式和过去分词) | |
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vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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pillaged
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| v.抢劫，掠夺( pillage的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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wrested
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| （用力）拧( wrest的过去式和过去分词 )； 费力取得； （从…）攫取； （ 从… ） 强行取去… | |
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entrenched
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| adj.确立的，不容易改的(风俗习惯) | |
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extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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distressed
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| 痛苦的 | |
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trenches
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| 深沟，地沟( trench的名词复数 )； 战壕 | |
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paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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averse
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| adj.厌恶的；反对的，不乐意的 | |
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hazardous
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| adj.(有)危险的，冒险的；碰运气的 | |
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undertakings
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| 企业( undertaking的名词复数 )； 保证； 殡仪业； 任务 | |
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repulsed
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| v.击退( repulse的过去式和过去分词 )；驳斥；拒绝 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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crouching
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| v.屈膝，蹲伏( crouch的现在分词 ) | |
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agonized
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| v.使（极度）痛苦，折磨( agonize的过去式和过去分词 )；苦斗；苦苦思索；感到极度痛苦 | |
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insolent
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| adj.傲慢的，无理的 | |
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abject
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| adj.极可怜的，卑屈的 | |
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prostrated
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| v.使俯伏，使拜倒( prostrate的过去式和过去分词 )；（指疾病、天气等）使某人无能为力 | |
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offenses
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| n.进攻( offense的名词复数 )；（球队的）前锋；进攻方法；攻势 | |
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prudent
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| adj.谨慎的，有远见的，精打细算的 | |
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disparagingly
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| adv.以贬抑的口吻，以轻视的态度 | |
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interfering
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| adj. 妨碍的 动词interfere的现在分词 | |
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proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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