I should not obtrude5 my affairs so much on the notice of my readers if very particular inquiries6 had not been made by my townsmen concerning my mode of life, which some would call impertinent, though they do not appear to me at all impertinent, but, considering the circumstances, very natural and pertinent7. Some have asked what I got to eat; if I did not feel lonesome; if I was not afraid; and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted8 to charitable purposes; and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained. I will therefore ask those of my readers who feel no particular interest in me to pardon me if I undertake to answer some of these questions in this book. In most books, the I, or first person, is omitted; in this it will be retained; that, in respect to egotism, is the main difference. We commonly do not remember that it is, after all, always the first person that is speaking. I should not talk so much about myself if there were anybody else whom I knew as well. Unfortunately, I am confined to this theme by the narrowness of my experience. Moreover, I, on my side, require of every writer, first or last, a simple and sincere account of his own life, and not merely what he has heard of other men's lives; some such account as he would send to his kindred from a distant land; for if he has lived sincerely, it must have been in a distant land to me. Perhaps these pages are more particularly addressed to poor students. As for the rest of my readers, they will accept such portions as apply to them. I trust that none will stretch the seams in putting on the coat, for it may do good service to him whom it fits.
I would fain say something, not so much concerning the Chinese and Sandwich Islanders as you who read these pages, who are said to live in New England; something about your condition, especially your outward condition or circumstances in this world, in this town, what it is, whether it is necessary that it be as bad as it is, whether it cannot be improved as well as not. I have travelled a good deal in Concord; and everywhere, in shops, and offices, and fields, the inhabitants have appeared to me to be doing penance13 in a thousand remarkable14 ways. What I have heard of Bramins sitting exposed to four fires and looking in the face of the sun; or hanging suspended, with their heads downward, over flames; or looking at the heavens over their shoulders "until it becomes impossible for them to resume their natural position, while from the twist of the neck nothing but liquids can pass into the stomach"; or dwelling15, chained for life, at the foot of a tree; or measuring with their bodies, like caterpillars17, the breadth of vast empires; or standing18 on one leg on the tops of pillars -- even these forms of conscious penance are hardly more incredible and astonishing than the scenes which I daily witness. The twelve labors20 of Hercules were trifling21 in comparison with those which my neighbors have undertaken; for they were only twelve, and had an end; but I could never see that these men slew22 or captured any monster or finished any labor. They have no friend Iolaus to burn with a hot iron the root of the hydra's head, but as soon as one head is crushed, two spring up.
I see young men, my townsmen, whose misfortune it is to have inherited farms, houses, barns, cattle, and farming tools; for these are more easily acquired than got rid of. Better if they had been born in the open pasture and suckled by a wolf, that they might have seen with clearer eyes what field they were called to labor in. Who made them serfs of the soil? Why should they eat their sixty acres, when man is condemned23 to eat only his peck of dirt? Why should they begin digging their graves as soon as they are born? They have got to live a man's life, pushing all these things before them, and get on as well as they can. How many a poor immortal24 soul have I met well-nigh crushed and smothered25 under its load, creeping down the road of life, pushing before it a barn seventy-five feet by forty, its Augean stables never cleansed27, and one hundred acres of land, tillage, mowing29, pasture, and woodlot! The portionless, who struggle with no such unnecessary inherited encumbrances30, find it labor enough to subdue32 and cultivate a few cubic feet of flesh.
But men labor under a mistake. The better part of the man is soon plowed33 into the soil for compost. By a seeming fate, commonly called necessity, they are employed, as it says in an old book, laying up treasures which moth26 and rust11 will corrupt35 and thieves break through and steal. It is a fool's life, as they will find when they get to the end of it, if not before. It is said that Deucalion and Pyrrha created men by throwing stones over their heads behind them:--
Inde genus durum sumus, experiensque laborum,
Et documenta damus qua simus origine nati.
Or, as Raleigh rhymes it in his sonorous36 way,--
"From thence our kind hard-hearted is, enduring pain and care, Approving that our bodies of a stony37 nature are."
So much for a blind obedience38 to a blundering oracle39, throwing the stones over their heads behind them, and not seeing where they fell.
Most men, even in this comparatively free country, through mere9 ignorance and mistake, are so occupied with the factitious cares and superfluously40 coarse labors of life that its finer fruits cannot be plucked by them. Their fingers, from excessive toil42, are too clumsy and tremble too much for that. Actually, the laboring43 man has not leisure for a true integrity day by day; he cannot afford to sustain the manliest44 relations to men; his labor would be depreciated45 in the market. He has no time to be anything but a machine. How can he remember well his ignorance -- which his growth requires -- who has so often to use his knowledge? We should feed and clothe him gratuitously46 sometimes, and recruit him with our cordials, before we judge of him. The finest qualities of our nature, like the bloom on fruits, can be preserved only by the most delicate handling. Yet we do not treat ourselves nor one another thus tenderly.
Some of you, we all know, are poor, find it hard to live, are sometimes, as it were, gasping47 for breath. I have no doubt that some of you who read this book are unable to pay for all the dinners which you have actually eaten, or for the coats and shoes which are fast wearing or are already worn out, and have come to this page to spend borrowed or stolen time, robbing your creditors48 of an hour. It is very evident what mean and sneaking49 lives many of you live, for my sight has been whetted50 by experience; always on the limits, trying to get into business and trying to get out of debt, a very ancient slough51, called by the Latins aes alienum, another's brass52, for some of their coins were made of brass; still living, and dying, and buried by this other's brass; always promising53 to pay, promising to pay, tomorrow, and dying today, insolvent54; seeking to curry55 favor, to get custom, by how many modes, only not state-prison offenses56; lying, flattering, voting, contracting yourselves into a nutshell of civility or dilating57 into an atmosphere of thin and vaporous generosity59, that you may persuade your neighbor to let you make his shoes, or his hat, or his coat, or his carriage, or import his groceries for him; making yourselves sick, that you may lay up something against a sick day, something to be tucked away in an old chest, or in a stocking behind the plastering, or, more safely, in the brick bank; no matter where, no matter how much or how little.
I sometimes wonder that we can be so frivolous60, I may almost say, as to attend to the gross but somewhat foreign form of servitude called Negro Slavery, there are so many keen and subtle masters that enslave both North and South. It is hard to have a Southern overseer; it is worse to have a Northern one; but worst of all when you are the slave-driver of yourself. Talk of a divinity in man! Look at the teamster on the highway, wending to market by day or night; does any divinity stir within him? His highest duty to fodder62 and water his horses! What is his destiny to him compared with the shipping63 interests? Does not he drive for Squire64 Make-a-stir? How godlike, how immortal, is he? See how he cowers65 and sneaks66, how vaguely67 all the day he fears, not being immortal nor divine, but the slave and prisoner of his own opinion of himself, a fame won by his own deeds. Public opinion is a weak tyrant68 compared with our own private opinion. What a man thinks of himself, that it is which determines, or rather indicates, his fate. Self-emancipation even in the West Indian provinces of the fancy and imagination -- what Wilberforce is there to bring that about? Think, also, of the ladies of the land weaving toilet cushions against the last day, not to betray too green an interest in their fates! As if you could kill time without injuring eternity69.
The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation. What is called resignation is confirmed desperation. From the desperate city you go into the desperate country, and have to console yourself with the bravery of minks70 and muskrats72. A stereotyped73 but unconscious despair is concealed74 even under what are called the games and amusements of mankind. There is no play in them, for this comes after work. But it is a characteristic of wisdom not to do desperate things.
When we consider what, to use the words of the catechism, is the chief end of man, and what are the true necessaries and means of life, it appears as if men had deliberately75 chosen the common mode of living because they preferred it to any other. Yet they honestly think there is no choice left. But alert and healthy natures remember that the sun rose clear. It is never too late to give up our prejudices. No way of thinking or doing, however ancient, can be trusted without proof. What everybody echoes or in silence passes by as true to-day may turn out to be falsehood to-morrow, mere smoke of opinion, which some had trusted for a cloud that would sprinkle fertilizing76 rain on their fields. What old people say you cannot do, you try and find that you can. Old deeds for old people, and new deeds for new. Old people did not know enough once, perchance, to fetch fresh fuel to keep the fire a-going; new people put a little dry wood under a pot, and are whirled round the globe with the speed of birds, in a way to kill old people, as the phrase is. Age is no better, hardly so well, qualified77 for an instructor78 as youth, for it has not profited so much as it has lost. One may almost doubt if the wisest man has learned anything of absolute value by living. Practically, the old have no very important advice to give the young, their own experience has been so partial, and their lives have been such miserable79 failures, for private reasons, as they must believe; and it may be that they have some faith left which belies80 that experience, and they are only less young than they were. I have lived some thirty years on this planet, and I have yet to hear the first syllable81 of valuable or even earnest advice from my seniors. They have told me nothing, and probably cannot tell me anything to the purpose. Here is life, an experiment to a great extent untried by me; but it does not avail me that they have tried it. If I have any experience which I think valuable, I am sure to reflect that this my Mentors82 said nothing about.
One farmer says to me, "You cannot live on vegetable food solely83, for it furnishes nothing to make bones with"; and so he religiously devotes a part of his day to supplying his system with the raw material of bones; walking all the while he talks behind his oxen, which, with vegetable-made bones, jerk him and his lumbering84 plow34 along in spite of every obstacle. Some things are really necessaries of life in some circles, the most helpless and diseased, which in others are luxuries merely, and in others still are entirely85 unknown.
The whole ground of human life seems to some to have been gone over by their predecessors86, both the heights and the valleys, and all things to have been cared for. According to Evelyn, "the wise Solomon prescribed ordinances87 for the very distances of trees; and the Roman praetors have decided88 how often you may go into your neighbor's land to gather the acorns89 which fall on it without trespass90, and what share belongs to that neighbor." Hippocrates has even left directions how we should cut our nails; that is, even with the ends of the fingers, neither shorter nor longer. Undoubtedly92 the very tedium93 and ennui94 which presume to have exhausted95 the variety and the joys of life are as old as Adam. But man's capacities have never been measured; nor are we to judge of what he can do by any precedents96, so little has been tried. Whatever have been thy failures hitherto, "be not afflicted97, my child, for who shall assign to thee what thou hast left undone98?"
We might try our lives by a thousand simple tests; as, for instance, that the same sun which ripens99 my beans illumines at once a system of earths like ours. If I had remembered this it would have prevented some mistakes. This was not the light in which I hoed them. The stars are the apexes100 of what wonderful triangles! What distant and different beings in the various mansions101 of the universe are contemplating103 the same one at the same moment! Nature and human life are as various as our several constitutions. Who shall say what prospect104 life offers to another? Could a greater miracle take place than for us to look through each other's eyes for an instant? We should live in all the ages of the world in an hour; ay, in all the worlds of the ages. History, Poetry, Mythology105! -- I know of no reading of another's experience so startling and informing as this would be.
The greater part of what my neighbors call good I believe in my soul to be bad, and if I repent106 of anything, it is very likely to be my good behavior. What demon107 possessed108 me that I behaved so well? You may say the wisest thing you can, old man -- you who have lived seventy years, not without honor of a kind -- I hear an irresistible109 voice which invites me away from all that. One generation abandons the enterprises of another like stranded110 vessels111.
I think that we may safely trust a good deal more than we do. We may waive113 just so much care of ourselves as we honestly bestow114 elsewhere. Nature is as well adapted to our weakness as to our strength. The incessant115 anxiety and strain of some is a well-nigh incurable116 form of disease. We are made to exaggerate the importance of what work we do; and yet how much is not done by us! or, what if we had been taken sick? How vigilant117 we are! determined118 not to live by faith if we can avoid it; all the day long on the alert, at night we unwillingly119 say our prayers and commit ourselves to uncertainties120. So thoroughly122 and sincerely are we compelled to live, reverencing123 our life, and denying the possibility of change. This is the only way, we say; but there are as many ways as there can be drawn124 radii125 from one centre. All change is a miracle to contemplate126; but it is a miracle which is taking place every instant. Confucius said, "To know that we know what we know, and that we do not know what we do not know, that is true knowledge." When one man has reduced a fact of the imagination to be a fact to his understanding, I foresee that all men at length establish their lives on that basis.
Let us consider for a moment what most of the trouble and anxiety which I have referred to is about, and how much it is necessary that we be troubled, or at least careful. It would be some advantage to live a primitive127 and frontier life, though in the midst of an outward civilization, if only to learn what are the gross necessaries of life and what methods have been taken to obtain them; or even to look over the old day-books of the merchants, to see what it was that men most commonly bought at the stores, what they stored, that is, what are the grossest groceries. For the improvements of ages have had but little influence on the essential laws of man's existence; as our skeletons, probably, are not to be distinguished128 from those of our ancestors.
By the words, necessary of life, I mean whatever, of all that man obtains by his own exertions129, has been from the first, or from long use has become, so important to human life that few, if any, whether from savageness131, or poverty, or philosophy, ever attempt to do without it. To many creatures there is in this sense but one necessary of life, Food. To the bison of the prairie it is a few inches of palatable132 grass, with water to drink; unless he seeks the Shelter of the forest or the mountain's shadow. None of the brute133 creation requires more than Food and Shelter. The necessaries of life for man in this climate may, accurately134 enough, be distributed under the several heads of Food, Shelter, Clothing, and Fuel; for not till we have secured these are we prepared to entertain the true problems of life with freedom and a prospect of success. Man has invented, not only houses, but clothes and cooked food; and possibly from the accidental discovery of the warmth of fire, and the consequent use of it, at first a luxury, arose the present necessity to sit by it. We observe cats and dogs acquiring the same second nature. By proper Shelter and Clothing we legitimately135 retain our own internal heat; but with an excess of these, or of Fuel, that is, with an external heat greater than our own internal, may not cookery properly be said to begin? Darwin, the naturalist136, says of the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, that while his own party, who were well clothed and sitting close to a fire, were far from too warm, these naked savages137, who were farther off, were observed, to his great surprise, "to be streaming with perspiration138 at undergoing such a roasting." So, we are told, the New Hollander goes naked with impunity139, while the European shivers in his clothes. Is it impossible to combine the hardiness140 of these savages with the intellectualness of the civilized man? According to Liebig, man's body is a stove, and food the fuel which keeps up the internal combustion141 in the lungs. In cold weather we eat more, in warm less. The animal heat is the result of a slow combustion, and disease and death take place when this is too rapid; or for want of fuel, or from some defect in the draught143, the fire goes out. Of course the vital heat is not to be confounded with fire; but so much for analogy. It appears, therefore, from the above list, that the expression, animal life, is nearly synonymous with the expression, animal heat; for while Food may be regarded as the Fuel which keeps up the fire within us -- and Fuel serves only to prepare that Food or to increase the warmth of our bodies by addition from without -- Shelter and Clothing also serve only to retain the heat thus generated and absorbed.
The grand necessity, then, for our bodies, is to keep warm, to keep the vital heat in us. What pains we accordingly take, not only with our Food, and Clothing, and Shelter, but with our beds, which are our night-clothes, robbing the nests and breasts of birds to prepare this shelter within a shelter, as the mole144 has its bed of grass and leaves at the end of its burrow145! The poor man is wont146 to complain that this is a cold world; and to cold, no less physical than social, we refer directly a great part of our ails91. The summer, in some climates, makes possible to man a sort of Elysian life. Fuel, except to cook his Food, is then unnecessary; the sun is his fire, and many of the fruits are sufficiently147 cooked by its rays; while Food generally is more various, and more easily obtained, and Clothing and Shelter are wholly or half unnecessary. At the present day, and in this country, as I find by my own experience, a few implements148, a knife, an axe149, a spade, a wheelbarrow, etc., and for the studious, lamplight, stationery150, and access to a few books, rank next to necessaries, and can all be obtained at a trifling cost. Yet some, not wise, go to the other side of the globe, to barbarous and unhealthy regions, and devote themselves to trade for ten or twenty years, in order that they may live -- that is, keep comfortably warm -- and die in New England at last. The luxuriously151 rich are not simply kept comfortably warm, but unnaturally154 hot; as I implied before, they are cooked, of course a la mode.
Most of the luxuries, and many of the so-called comforts of life, are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances155 to the elevation156 of mankind. With respect to luxuries and comforts, the wisest have ever lived a more simple and meagre life than the poor. The ancient philosophers, Chinese, Hindoo, Persian, and Greek, were a class than which none has been poorer in outward riches, none so rich in inward. We know not much about them. It is remarkable that we know so much of them as we do. The same is true of the more modern reformers and benefactors157 of their race. None can be an impartial158 or wise observer of human life but from the vantage ground of what we should call voluntary poverty. Of a life of luxury the fruit is luxury, whether in agriculture, or commerce, or literature, or art. There are nowadays professors of philosophy, but not philosophers. Yet it is admirable to profess159 because it was once admirable to live. To be a philosopher is not merely to have subtle thoughts, nor even to found a school, but so to love wisdom as to live according to its dictates160, a life of simplicity161, independence, magnanimity, and trust. It is to solve some of the problems of life, not only theoretically, but practically. The success of great scholars and thinkers is commonly a courtier-like success, not kingly, not manly162. They make shift to live merely by conformity163, practically as their fathers did, and are in no sense the progenitors164 of a noble race of men. But why do men degenerate165 ever? What makes families run out? What is the nature of the luxury which enervates166 and destroys nations? Are we sure that there is none of it in our own lives? The philosopher is in advance of his age even in the outward form of his life. He is not fed, sheltered, clothed, warmed, like his contemporaries. How can a man be a philosopher and not maintain his vital heat by better methods than other men?
When a man is warmed by the several modes which I have described, what does he want next? Surely not more warmth of the same kind, as more and richer food, larger and more splendid houses, finer and more abundant clothing, more numerous, incessant, and hotter fires, and the like. When he has obtained those things which are necessary to life, there is another alternative than to obtain the superfluities; and that is, to adventure on life now, his vacation from humbler toil having commenced. The soil, it appears, is suited to the seed, for it has sent its radicle downward, and it may now send its shoot upward also with confidence. Why has man rooted himself thus firmly in the earth, but that he may rise in the same proportion into the heavens above? -- for the nobler plants are valued for the fruit they bear at last in the air and light, far from the ground, and are not treated like the humbler esculents, which, though they may be biennials, are cultivated only till they have perfected their root, and often cut down at top for this purpose, so that most would not know them in their flowering season.
I do not mean to prescribe rules to strong and valiant168 natures, who will mind their own affairs whether in heaven or hell, and perchance build more magnificently and spend more lavishly169 than the richest, without ever impoverishing170 themselves, not knowing how they live -- if, indeed, there are any such, as has been dreamed; nor to those who find their encouragement and inspiration in precisely171 the present condition of things, and cherish it with the fondness and enthusiasm of lovers -- and, to some extent, I reckon myself in this number; I do not speak to those who are well employed, in whatever circumstances, and they know whether they are well employed or not; -- but mainly to the mass of men who are discontented, and idly complaining of the hardness of their lot or of the times, when they might improve them. There are some who complain most energetically and inconsolably of any, because they are, as they say, doing their duty. I also have in my mind that seemingly wealthy, but most terribly impoverished173 class of all, who have accumulated dross174, but know not how to use it, or get rid of it, and thus have forged their own golden or silver fetters175.
If I should attempt to tell how I have desired to spend my life in years past, it would probably surprise those of my readers who are somewhat acquainted with its actual history; it would certainly astonish those who know nothing about it. I will only hint at some of the enterprises which I have cherished.
In any weather, at any hour of the day or night, I have been anxious to improve the nick of time, and notch176 it on my stick too; to stand on the meeting of two eternities, the past and future, which is precisely the present moment; to toe that line. You will pardon some obscurities, for there are more secrets in my trade than in most men's, and yet not voluntarily kept, but inseparable from its very nature. I would gladly tell all that I know about it, and never paint "No Admittance" on my gate.
I long ago lost a hound, a bay horse, and a turtle dove, and am still on their trail. Many are the travellers I have spoken concerning them, describing their tracks and what calls they answered to. I have met one or two who had heard the hound, and the tramp of the horse, and even seen the dove disappear behind a cloud, and they seemed as anxious to recover them as if they had lost them themselves.
To anticipate, not the sunrise and the dawn merely, but, if possible, Nature herself! How many mornings, summer and winter, before yet any neighbor was stirring about his business, have I been about mine! No doubt, many of my townsmen have met me returning from this enterprise, farmers starting for Boston in the twilight177, or woodchoppers going to their work. It is true, I never assisted the sun materially in his rising, but, doubt not, it was of the last importance only to be present at it.
So many autumn, ay, and winter days, spent outside the town, trying to hear what was in the wind, to hear and carry it express! I well-nigh sunk all my capital in it, and lost my own breath into the bargain, running in the face of it. If it had concerned either of the political parties, depend upon it, it would have appeared in the Gazette with the earliest intelligence. At other times watching from the observatory178 of some cliff or tree, to telegraph any new arrival; or waiting at evening on the hill-tops for the sky to fall, that I might catch something, though I never caught much, and that, manna-wise, would dissolve again in the sun.
For a long time I was reporter to a journal, of no very wide circulation, whose editor has never yet seen fit to print the bulk of my contributions, and, as is too common with writers, I got only my labor for my pains. However, in this case my pains were their own reward.
For many years I was self-appointed inspector179 of snow-storms and rain-storms, and did my duty faithfully; surveyor, if not of highways, then of forest paths and all across-lot routes, keeping them open, and ravines bridged and passable at all seasons, where the public heel had testified to their utility.
I have looked after the wild stock of the town, which give a faithful herdsman a good deal of trouble by leaping fences; and I have had an eye to the unfrequented nooks and corners of the farm; though I did not always know whether Jonas or Solomon worked in a particular field to-day; that was none of my business. I have watered the red huckleberry, the sand cherry and the nettle-tree, the red pine and the black ash, the white grape and the yellow violet, which might have withered182 else in dry seasons.
In short, I went on thus for a long time (I may say it without boasting), faithfully minding my business, till it became more and more evident that my townsmen would not after all admit me into the list of town officers, nor make my place a sinecure183 with a moderate allowance. My accounts, which I can swear to have kept faithfully, I have, indeed, never got audited184, still less accepted, still less paid and settled. However, I have not set my heart on that.
Not long since, a strolling Indian went to sell baskets at the house of a well-known lawyer in my neighborhood. "Do you wish to buy any baskets?" he asked. "No, we do not want any," was the reply. "What!" exclaimed the Indian as he went out the gate, "do you mean to starve us?" Having seen his industrious185 white neighbors so well off -- that the lawyer had only to weave arguments, and, by some magic, wealth and standing followed -- he had said to himself: I will go into business; I will weave baskets; it is a thing which I can do. Thinking that when he had made the baskets he would have done his part, and then it would be the white man's to buy them. He had not discovered that it was necessary for him to make it worth the other's while to buy them, or at least make him think that it was so, or to make something else which it would be worth his while to buy. I too had woven a kind of basket of a delicate texture186, but I had not made it worth any one's while to buy them. Yet not the less, in my case, did I think it worth my while to weave them, and instead of studying how to make it worth men's while to buy my baskets, I studied rather how to avoid the necessity of selling them. The life which men praise and regard as successful is but one kind. Why should we exaggerate any one kind at the expense of the others?
Finding that my fellow-citizens were not likely to offer me any room in the court house, or any curacy or living anywhere else, but I must shift for myself, I turned my face more exclusively than ever to the woods, where I was better known. I determined to go into business at once, and not wait to acquire the usual capital, using such slender means as I had already got. My purpose in going to Walden Pond was not to live cheaply nor to live dearly there, but to transact187 some private business with the fewest obstacles; to be hindered from accomplishing which for want of a little common sense, a little enterprise and business talent, appeared not so sad as foolish.
I have always endeavored to acquire strict business habits; they are indispensable to every man. If your trade is with the Celestial188 Empire, then some small counting house on the coast, in some Salem harbor, will be fixture189 enough. You will export such articles as the country affords, purely190 native products, much ice and pine timber and a little granite191, always in native bottoms. These will be good ventures. To oversee61 all the details yourself in person; to be at once pilot and captain, and owner and underwriter; to buy and sell and keep the accounts; to read every letter received, and write or read every letter sent; to superintend the discharge of imports night and day; to be upon many parts of the coast almost at the same time -- often the richest freight will be discharged upon a Jersey192 shore; -- to be your own telegraph, unweariedly sweeping193 the horizon, speaking all passing vessels bound coastwise; to keep up a steady despatch194 of commodities, for the supply of such a distant and exorbitant195 market; to keep yourself informed of the state of the markets, prospects196 of war and peace everywhere, and anticipate the tendencies of trade and civilization -- taking advantage of the results of all exploring expeditions, using new passages and all improvements in navigation; -- charts to be studied, the position of reefs and new lights and buoys197 to be ascertained198, and ever, and ever, the logarithmic tables to be corrected, for by the error of some calculator the vessel112 often splits upon a rock that should have reached a friendly pier199 -- there is the untold200 fate of La Prouse; -- universal science to be kept pace with, studying the lives of all great discoverers and navigators, great adventurers and merchants, from Hanno and the Phoenicians down to our day; in fine, account of stock to be taken from time to time, to know how you stand. It is a labor to task the faculties201 of a man -- such problems of profit and loss, of interest, of tare202 and tret, and gauging203 of all kinds in it, as demand a universal knowledge.
I have thought that Walden Pond would be a good place for business, not solely on account of the railroad and the ice trade; it offers advantages which it may not be good policy to divulge204; it is a good port and a good foundation. No Neva marshes205 to be filled; though you must everywhere build on piles of your own driving. It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind, and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth.
As this business was to be entered into without the usual capital, it may not be easy to conjecture206 where those means, that will still be indispensable to every such undertaking207, were to be obtained. As for Clothing, to come at once to the practical part of the question, perhaps we are led oftener by the love of novelty and a regard for the opinions of men, in procuring208 it, than by a true utility. Let him who has work to do recollect209 that the object of clothing is, first, to retain the vital heat, and secondly210, in this state of society, to cover nakedness, and he may judge how much of any necessary or important work may be accomplished211 without adding to his wardrobe. Kings and queens who wear a suit but once, though made by some tailor or dressmaker to their majesties212, cannot know the comfort of wearing a suit that fits. They are no better than wooden horses to hang the clean clothes on. Every day our garments become more assimilated to ourselves, receiving the impress of the wearer's character, until we hesitate to lay them aside without such delay and medical appliances and some such solemnity even as our bodies. No man ever stood the lower in my estimation for having a patch in his clothes; yet I am sure that there is greater anxiety, commonly, to have fashionable, or at least clean and unpatched clothes, than to have a sound conscience. But even if the rent is not mended, perhaps the worst vice12 betrayed is improvidence213. I sometimes try my acquaintances by such tests as this -- Who could wear a patch, or two extra seams only, over the knee? Most behave as if they believed that their prospects for life would be ruined if they should do it. It would be easier for them to hobble to town with a broken leg than with a broken pantaloon. Often if an accident happens to a gentleman's legs, they can be mended; but if a similar accident happens to the legs of his pantaloons, there is no help for it; for he considers, not what is truly respectable, but what is respected. We know but few men, a great many coats and breeches. Dress a scarecrow in your last shift, you standing shiftless by, who would not soonest salute215 the scarecrow? Passing a cornfield the other day, close by a hat and coat on a stake, I recognized the owner of the farm. He was only a little more weather-beaten than when I saw him last. I have heard of a dog that barked at every stranger who approached his master's premises216 with clothes on, but was easily quieted by a naked thief. It is an interesting question how far men would retain their relative rank if they were divested217 of their clothes. Could you, in such a case, tell surely of any company of civilized men which belonged to the most respected class? When Madam Pfeiffer, in her adventurous218 travels round the world, from east to west, had got so near home as Asiatic Russia, she says that she felt the necessity of wearing other than a travelling dress, when she went to meet the authorities, for she "was now in a civilized country, where ... people are judged of by their clothes." Even in our democratic New England towns the accidental possession of wealth, and its manifestation219 in dress and equipage alone, obtain for the possessor almost universal respect. But they yield such respect, numerous as they are, are so far heathen, and need to have a missionary220 sent to them. Beside, clothes introduced sewing, a kind of work which you may call endless; a woman's dress, at least, is never done.
A man who has at length found something to do will not need to get a new suit to do it in; for him the old will do, that has lain dusty in the garret for an indeterminate period. Old shoes will serve a hero longer than they have served his valet -- if a hero ever has a valet -- bare feet are older than shoes, and he can make them do. Only they who go to soires and legislative221 balls must have new coats, coats to change as often as the man changes in them. But if my jacket and trousers, my hat and shoes, are fit to worship God in, they will do; will they not? Who ever saw his old clothes -- his old coat, actually worn out, resolved into its primitive elements, so that it was not a deed of charity to bestow it on some poor boy, by him perchance to be bestowed222 on some poorer still, or shall we say richer, who could do with less? I say, beware of all enterprises that require new clothes, and not rather a new wearer of clothes. If there is not a new man, how can the new clothes be made to fit? If you have any enterprise before you, try it in your old clothes. All men want, not something to do with, but something to do, or rather something to be. Perhaps we should never procure223 a new suit, however ragged224 or dirty the old, until we have so conducted, so enterprised or sailed in some way, that we feel like new men in the old, and that to retain it would be like keeping new wine in old bottles. Our moulting season, like that of the fowls225, must be a crisis in our lives. The loon214 retires to solitary226 ponds to spend it. Thus also the snake casts its slough, and the caterpillar16 its wormy coat, by an internal industry and expansion; for clothes are but our outmost cuticle227 and mortal coil. Otherwise we shall be found sailing under false colors, and be inevitably228 cashiered at last by our own opinion, as well as that of mankind.
We don garment after garment, as if we grew like exogenous plants by addition without. Our outside and often thin and fanciful clothes are our epidermis229, or false skin, which partakes not of our life, and may be stripped off here and there without fatal injury; our thicker garments, constantly worn, are our cellular230 integument231, or cortex; but our shirts are our liber, or true bark, which cannot be removed without girdling and so destroying the man. I believe that all races at some seasons wear something equivalent to the shirt. It is desirable that a man be clad so simply that he can lay his hands on himself in the dark, and that he live in all respects so compactly and preparedly that, if an enemy take the town, he can, like the old philosopher, walk out the gate empty-handed without anxiety. While one thick garment is, for most purposes, as good as three thin ones, and cheap clothing can be obtained at prices really to suit customers; while a thick coat can be bought for five dollars, which will last as many years, thick pantaloons for two dollars, cowhide boots for a dollar and a half a pair, a summer hat for a quarter of a dollar, and a winter cap for sixty-two and a half cents, or a better be made at home at a nominal232 cost, where is he so poor that, clad in such a suit, of his own earning, there will not be found wise men to do him reverence233?
When I ask for a garment of a particular form, my tailoress tells me gravely, "They do not make them so now," not emphasizing the "They" at all, as if she quoted an authority as impersonal234 as the Fates, and I find it difficult to get made what I want, simply because she cannot believe that I mean what I say, that I am so rash. When I hear this oracular sentence, I am for a moment absorbed in thought, emphasizing to myself each word separately that I may come at the meaning of it, that I may find out by what degree of consanguinity235 They are related to me, and what authority they may have in an affair which affects me so nearly; and, finally, I am inclined to answer her with equal mystery, and without any more emphasis of the "they" -- "It is true, they did not make them so recently, but they do now." Of what use this measuring of me if she does not measure my character, but only the breadth of my shoulders, as it were a peg236 to bang the coat on? We worship not the Graces, nor the Parcae, but Fashion. She spins and weaves and cuts with full authority. The head monkey at Paris puts on a traveller's cap, and all the monkeys in America do the same. I sometimes despair of getting anything quite simple and honest done in this world by the help of men. They would have to be passed through a powerful press first, to squeeze their old notions out of them, so that they would not soon get upon their legs again; and then there would be some one in the company with a maggot in his head, hatched from an egg deposited there nobody knows when, for not even fire kills these things, and you would have lost your labor. Nevertheless, we will not forget that some Egyptian wheat was handed down to us by a mummy.
On the whole, I think that it cannot be maintained that dressing237 has in this or any country risen to the dignity of an art. At present men make shift to wear what they can get. Like shipwrecked sailors, they put on what they can find on the beach, and at a little distance, whether of space or time, laugh at each other's masquerade. Every generation laughs at the old fashions, but follows religiously the new. We are amused at beholding238 the costume of Henry VIII, or Queen Elizabeth, as much as if it was that of the King and Queen of the Cannibal Islands. All costume off a man is pitiful or grotesque240. It is only the serious eye peering from and the sincere life passed within it which restrain laughter and consecrate241 the costume of any people. Let Harlequin be taken with a fit of the colic and his trappings will have to serve that mood too. When the soldier is hit by a cannonball, rags are as becoming as purple.
The childish and savage130 taste of men and women for new patterns keeps how many shaking and squinting242 through kaleidoscopes that they may discover the particular figure which this generation requires today. The manufacturers have learned that this taste is merely whimsical. Of two patterns which differ only by a few threads more or less of a particular color, the one will be sold readily, the other lie on the shelf, though it frequently happens that after the lapse243 of a season the latter becomes the most fashionable. Comparatively, tattooing244 is not the hideous245 custom which it is called. It is not barbarous merely because the printing is skin-deep and unalterable.
I cannot believe that our factory system is the best mode by which men may get clothing. The condition of the operatives is becoming every day more like that of the English; and it cannot be wondered at, since, as far as I have heard or observed, the principal object is, not that mankind may be well and honestly clad, but, unquestionably, that corporations may be enriched. In the long run men hit only what they aim at. Therefore, though they should fail immediately, they had better aim at something high.
As for a Shelter, I will not deny that this is now a necessary of life, though there are instances of men having done without it for long periods in colder countries than this. Samuel Laing says that "the Laplander in his skin dress, and in a skin bag which he puts over his head and shoulders, will sleep night after night on the snow ... in a degree of cold which would extinguish the life of one exposed to it in any woollen clothing." He had seen them asleep thus. Yet he adds, "They are not hardier246 than other people." But, probably, man did not live long on the earth without discovering the convenience which there is in a house, the domestic comforts, which phrase may have originally signified the satisfactions of the house more than of the family; though these must be extremely partial and occasional in those climates where the house is associated in our thoughts with winter or the rainy season chiefly, and two thirds of the year, except for a parasol, is unnecessary. In our climate, in the summer, it was formerly247 almost solely a covering at night. In the Indian gazettes a wigwam was the symbol of a day's march, and a row of them cut or painted on the bark of a tree signified that so many times they had camped. Man was not made so large limbed and robust248 but that he must seek to narrow his world and wall in a space such as fitted him. He was at first bare and out of doors; but though this was pleasant enough in serene249 and warm weather, by daylight, the rainy season and the winter, to say nothing of the torrid sun, would perhaps have nipped his race in the bud if he had not made haste to clothe himself with the shelter of a house. Adam and Eve, according to the fable250, wore the bower251 before other clothes. Man wanted a home, a place of warmth, or comfort, first of warmth, then the warmth of the affections.
We may imagine a time when, in the infancy252 of the human race, some enterprising mortal crept into a hollow in a rock for shelter. Every child begins the world again, to some extent, and loves to stay outdoors, even in wet and cold. It plays house, as well as horse, having an instinct for it. Who does not remember the interest with which, when young, he looked at shelving rocks, or any approach to a cave? It was the natural yearning253 of that portion, any portion of our most primitive ancestor which still survived in us. From the cave we have advanced to roofs of palm leaves, of bark and boughs254, of linen255 woven and stretched, of grass and straw, of boards and shingles257, of stones and tiles. At last, we know not what it is to live in the open air, and our lives are domestic in more senses than we think. From the hearth258 the field is a great distance. It would be well, perhaps, if we were to spend more of our days and nights without any obstruction259 between us and the celestial bodies, if the poet did not speak so much from under a roof, or the saint dwell there so long. Birds do not sing in caves, nor do doves cherish their innocence260 in dovecots.
However, if one designs to construct a dwelling-house, it behooves261 him to exercise a little Yankee shrewdness, lest after all he find himself in a workhouse, a labyrinth262 without a clue, a museum, an almshouse, a prison, or a splendid mausoleum instead. Consider first how slight a shelter is absolutely necessary. I have seen Penobscot Indians, in this town, living in tents of thin cotton cloth, while the snow was nearly a foot deep around them, and I thought that they would be glad to have it deeper to keep out the wind. Formerly, when how to get my living honestly, with freedom left for my proper pursuits, was a question which vexed263 me even more than it does now, for unfortunately I am become somewhat callous264, I used to see a large box by the railroad, six feet long by three wide, in which the laborers265 locked up their tools at night; and it suggested to me that every man who was hard pushed might get such a one for a dollar, and, having bored a few auger266 holes in it, to admit the air at least, get into it when it rained and at night, and hook down the lid, and so have freedom in his love, and in his soul be free. This did not appear the worst, nor by any means a despicable alternative. You could sit up as late as you pleased, and, whenever you got up, go abroad without any landlord or house-lord dogging you for rent. Many a man is harassed267 to death to pay the rent of a larger and more luxurious152 box who would not have frozen to death in such a box as this. I am far from jesting. Economy is a subject which admits of being treated with levity268, but it cannot so be disposed of. A comfortable house for a rude and hardy269 race, that lived mostly out of doors, was once made here almost entirely of such materials as Nature furnished ready to their hands. Gookin, who was superintendent270 of the Indians subject to the Massachusetts Colony, writing in 1674, says, "The best of their houses are covered very neatly271, tight and warm, with barks of trees, slipped from their bodies at those seasons when the sap is up, and made into great flakes272, with pressure of weighty timber, when they are green.... The meaner sort are covered with mats which they make of a kind of bulrush, and are also indifferently tight and warm, but not so good as the former.... Some I have seen, sixty or a hundred feet long and thirty feet broad.... I have often lodged273 in their wigwams, and found them as warm as the best English houses." He adds that they were commonly carpeted and lined within with well-wrought embroidered275 mats, and were furnished with various utensils276. The Indians had advanced so far as to regulate the effect of the wind by a mat suspended over the hole in the roof and moved by a string. Such a lodge274 was in the first instance constructed in a day or two at most, and taken down and put up in a few hours; and every family owned one, or its apartment in one.
In the savage state every family owns a shelter as good as the best, and sufficient for its coarser and simpler wants; but I think that I speak within bounds when I say that, though the birds of the air have their nests, and the foxes their holes, and the savages their wigwams, in modern civilized society not more than one half the families own a shelter. In the large towns and cities, where civilization especially prevails, the number of those who own a shelter is a very small fraction of the whole. The rest pay an annual tax for this outside garment of all, become indispensable summer and winter, which would buy a village of Indian wigwams, but now helps to keep them poor as long as they live. I do not mean to insist here on the disadvantage of hiring compared with owning, but it is evident that the savage owns his shelter because it costs so little, while the civilized man hires his commonly because he cannot afford to own it; nor can he, in the long run, any better afford to hire. But, answers one, by merely paying this tax, the poor civilized man secures an abode277 which is a palace compared with the savage's. An annual rent of from twenty-five to a hundred dollars (these are the country rates) entitles him to the benefit of the improvements of centuries, spacious278 apartments, clean paint and paper, Rumford fire-place, back plastering, Venetian blinds, copper279 pump, spring lock, a commodious280 cellar, and many other things. But how happens it that he who is said to enjoy these things is so commonly a poor civilized man, while the savage, who has them not, is rich as a savage? If it is asserted that civilization is a real advance in the condition of man -- and I think that it is, though only the wise improve their advantages -- it must be shown that it has produced better dwellings281 without making them more costly282; and the cost of a thing is the amount of what I will call life which is required to be exchanged for it, immediately or in the long run. An average house in this neighborhood costs perhaps eight hundred dollars, and to lay up this sum will take from ten to fifteen years of the laborer's life, even if he is not encumbered283 with a family -- estimating the pecuniary284 value of every man's labor at one dollar a day, for if some receive more, others receive less; -- so that he must have spent more than half his life commonly before his wigwam will be earned. If we suppose him to pay a rent instead, this is but a doubtful choice of evils. Would the savage have been wise to exchange his wigwam for a palace on these terms?
It may be guessed that I reduce almost the whole advantage of holding this superfluous41 property as a fund in store against the future, so far as the individual is concerned, mainly to the defraying of funeral expenses. But perhaps a man is not required to bury himself. Nevertheless this points to an important distinction between the civilized man and the savage; and, no doubt, they have designs on us for our benefit, in making the life of a civilized people an institution, in which the life of the individual is to a great extent absorbed, in order to preserve and perfect that of the race. But I wish to show at what a sacrifice this advantage is at present obtained, and to suggest that we may possibly so live as to secure all the advantage without suffering any of the disadvantage. What mean ye by saying that the poor ye have always with you, or that the fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge?
"As I live, saith the Lord God, ye shall not have occasion any more to use this proverb in Israel.
"Behold239 all souls are mine; as the soul of the father, so also the soul of the son is mine: the soul that sinneth, it shall die."
When I consider my neighbors, the farmers of Concord, who are at least as well off as the other classes, I find that for the most part they have been toiling285 twenty, thirty, or forty years, that they may become the real owners of their farms, which commonly they have inherited with encumbrances, or else bought with hired money -- and we may regard one third of that toil as the cost of their houses -- but commonly they have not paid for them yet. It is true, the encumbrances sometimes outweigh286 the value of the farm, so that the farm itself becomes one great encumbrance31, and still a man is found to inherit it, being well acquainted with it, as he says. On applying to the assessors, I am surprised to learn that they cannot at once name a dozen in the town who own their farms free and clear. If you would know the history of these homesteads, inquire at the bank where they are mortgaged. The man who has actually paid for his farm with labor on it is so rare that every neighbor can point to him. I doubt if there are three such men in Concord. What has been said of the merchants, that a very large majority, even ninety-seven in a hundred, are sure to fail, is equally true of the farmers. With regard to the merchants, however, one of them says pertinently287 that a great part of their failures are not genuine pecuniary failures, but merely failures to fulfil their engagements, because it is inconvenient288; that is, it is the moral character that breaks down. But this puts an infinitely289 worse face on the matter, and suggests, beside, that probably not even the other three succeed in saving their souls, but are perchance bankrupt in a worse sense than they who fail honestly. Bankruptcy290 and repudiation291 are the springboards from which much of our civilization vaults292 and turns its somersets, but the savage stands on the unelastic plank293 of famine. Yet the Middlesex Cattle Show goes off here with eclat294 annually295, as if all the joints297 of the agricultural machine were suent.
The farmer is endeavoring to solve the problem of a livelihood298 by a formula more complicated than the problem itself. To get his shoestrings299 he speculates in herds180 of cattle. With consummate300 skill he has set his trap with a hair spring to catch comfort and independence, and then, as he turned away, got his own leg into it. This is the reason he is poor; and for a similar reason we are all poor in respect to a thousand savage comforts, though surrounded by luxuries. As Chapman sings,
"The false society of men --
-- for earthly greatness
All heavenly comforts rarefies to air."
And when the farmer has got his house, he may not be the richer but the poorer for it, and it be the house that has got him. As I understand it, that was a valid301 objection urged by Momus against the house which Minerva made, that she "had not made it movable, by which means a bad neighborhood might be avoided"; and it may still be urged, for our houses are such unwieldy property that we are often imprisoned302 rather than housed in them; and the bad neighborhood to be avoided is our own scurvy303 selves. I know one or two families, at least, in this town, who, for nearly a generation, have been wishing to sell their houses in the outskirts304 and move into the village, but have not been able to accomplish it, and only death will set them free.
Granted that the majority are able at last either to own or hire the modern house with all its improvements. While civilization has been improving our houses, it has not equally improved the men who are to inhabit them. It has created palaces, but it was not so easy to create noblemen and kings. And if the civilized man's pursuits are no worthier305 than the savage's, if he is employed the greater part of his life in obtaining gross necessaries and comforts merely, why should he have a better dwelling than the former?
But how do the poor minority fare? Perhaps it will be found that just in proportion as some have been placed in outward circumstances above the savage, others have been degraded below him. The luxury of one class is counterbalanced by the indigence306 of another. On the one side is the palace, on the other are the almshouse and "silent poor." The myriads307 who built the pyramids to be the tombs of the Pharaohs were fed on garlic, and it may be were not decently buried themselves. The mason who finishes the cornice of the palace returns at night perchance to a hut not so good as a wigwam. It is a mistake to suppose that, in a country where the usual evidences of civilization exist, the condition of a very large body of the inhabitants may not be as degraded as that of savages. I refer to the degraded poor, not now to the degraded rich. To know this I should not need to look farther than to the shanties308 which everywhere border our railroads, that last improvement in civilization; where I see in my daily walks human beings living in sties, and all winter with an open door, for the sake of light, without any visible, often imaginable, wood-pile, and the forms of both old and young are permanently309 contracted by the long habit of shrinking from cold and misery310, and the development of all their limbs and faculties is checked. It certainly is fair to look at that class by whose labor the works which distinguish this generation are accomplished. Such too, to a greater or less extent, is the condition of the operatives of every denomination311 in England, which is the great workhouse of the world. Or I could refer you to Ireland, which is marked as one of the white or enlightened spots on the map. Contrast the physical condition of the Irish with that of the North American Indian, or the South Sea Islander, or any other savage race before it was degraded by contact with the civilized man. Yet I have no doubt that that people's rulers are as wise as the average of civilized rulers. Their condition only proves what squalidness may consist with civilization. I hardly need refer now to the laborers in our Southern States who produce the staple312 exports of this country, and are themselves a staple production of the South. But to confine myself to those who are said to be in moderate circumstances.
Most men appear never to have considered what a house is, and are actually though needlessly poor all their lives because they think that they must have such a one as their neighbors have. As if one were to wear any sort of coat which the tailor might cut out for him, or, gradually leaving off palm-leaf hat or cap of woodchuck skin, complain of hard times because he could not afford to buy him a crown! It is possible to invent a house still more convenient and luxurious than we have, which yet all would admit that man could not afford to pay for. Shall we always study to obtain more of these things, and not sometimes to be content with less? Shall the respectable citizen thus gravely teach, by precept313 and example, the necessity of the young man's providing a certain number of superfluous glow-shoes, and umbrellas, and empty guest chambers314 for empty guests, before he dies? Why should not our furniture be as simple as the Arab's or the Indian's? When I think of the benefactors of the race, whom we have apotheosized as messengers from heaven, bearers of divine gifts to man, I do not see in my mind any retinue315 at their heels, any carload of fashionable furniture. Or what if I were to allow -- would it not be a singular allowance? -- that our furniture should be more complex than the Arab's, in proportion as we are morally and intellectually his superiors! At present our houses are cluttered316 and defiled317 with it, and a good housewife would sweep out the greater part into the dust hole, and not leave her morning's work undone. Morning work! By the blushes of Aurora318 and the music of Memnon, what should be man's morning work in this world? I had three pieces of limestone319 on my desk, but I was terrified to find that they required to be dusted daily, when the furniture of my mind was all undusted still, and threw them out the window in disgust. How, then, could I have a furnished house? I would rather sit in the open air, for no dust gathers on the grass, unless where man has broken ground.
It is the luxurious and dissipated who set the fashions which the herd181 so diligently320 follow. The traveller who stops at the best houses, so called, soon discovers this, for the publicans presume him to be a Sardanapalus, and if he resigned himself to their tender mercies he would soon be completely emasculated. I think that in the railroad car we are inclined to spend more on luxury than on safety and convenience, and it threatens without attaining321 these to become no better than a modern drawing-room, with its divans322, and ottomans, and sun-shades, and a hundred other oriental things, which we are taking west with us, invented for the ladies of the harem and the effeminate natives of the Celestial Empire, which Jonathan should be ashamed to know the names of. I would rather sit on a pumpkin323 and have it all to myself than be crowded on a velvet324 cushion. I would rather ride on earth in an ox cart, with a free circulation, than go to heaven in the fancy car of an excursion train and breathe a malaria325 all the way.
The very simplicity and nakedness of man's life in the primitive ages imply this advantage, at least, that they left him still but a sojourner in nature. When he was refreshed with food and sleep, he contemplated326 his journey again. He dwelt, as it were, in a tent in this world, and was either threading the valleys, or crossing the plains, or climbing the mountain-tops. But lo! men have become the tools of their tools. The man who independently plucked the fruits when he was hungry is become a farmer; and he who stood under a tree for shelter, a housekeeper327. We now no longer camp as for a night, but have settled down on earth and forgotten heaven. We have adopted Christianity merely as an improved method of agri-culture. We have built for this world a family mansion102, and for the next a family tomb. The best works of art are the expression of man's struggle to free himself from this condition, but the effect of our art is merely to make this low state comfortable and that higher state to be forgotten. There is actually no place in this village for a work of fine art, if any had come down to us, to stand, for our lives, our houses and streets, furnish no proper pedestal for it. There is not a nail to hang a picture on, nor a shelf to receive the bust142 of a hero or a saint. When I consider how our houses are built and paid for, or not paid for, and their internal economy managed and sustained, I wonder that the floor does not give way under the visitor while he is admiring the gewgaws upon the mantelpiece, and let him through into the cellar, to some solid and honest though earthy foundation. I cannot but perceive that this so-called rich and refined life is a thing jumped at, and I do not get on in the enjoyment329 of the fine arts which adorn330 it, my attention being wholly occupied with the jump; for I remember that the greatest genuine leap, due to human muscles alone, on record, is that of certain wandering Arabs, who are said to have cleared twenty-five feet on level ground. Without factitious support, man is sure to come to earth again beyond that distance. The first question which I am tempted331 to put to the proprietor332 of such great impropriety is, Who bolsters333 you? Are you one of the ninety-seven who fail, or the three who succeed? Answer me these questions, and then perhaps I may look at your bawbles and find them ornamental334. The cart before the horse is neither beautiful nor useful. Before we can adorn our houses with beautiful objects the walls must be stripped, and our lives must be stripped, and beautiful housekeeping and beautiful living be laid for a foundation: now, a taste for the beautiful is most cultivated out of doors, where there is no house and no housekeeper.
Old Johnson, in his "Wonder-Working Providence," speaking of the first settlers of this town, with whom he was contemporary, tells us that "they burrow themselves in the earth for their first shelter under some hillside, and, casting the soil aloft upon timber, they make a smoky fire against the earth, at the highest side." They did not "provide them houses," says he, "till the earth, by the Lord's blessing336, brought forth337 bread to feed them," and the first year's crop was so light that "they were forced to cut their bread very thin for a long season." The secretary of the Province of New Netherland, writing in Dutch, in 1650, for the information of those who wished to take up land there, states more particularly that "those in New Netherland, and especially in New England, who have no means to build farmhouses338 at first according to their wishes, dig a square pit in the ground, cellar fashion, six or seven feet deep, as long and as broad as they think proper, case the earth inside with wood all round the wall, and line the wood with the bark of trees or something else to prevent the caving in of the earth; floor this cellar with plank, and wainscot it overhead for a ceiling, raise a roof of spars clear up, and cover the spars with bark or green sods, so that they can live dry and warm in these houses with their entire families for two, three, and four years, it being understood that partitions are run through those cellars which are adapted to the size of the family. The wealthy and principal men in New England, in the beginning of the colonies, commenced their first dwelling-houses in this fashion for two reasons: firstly, in order not to waste time in building, and not to want food the next season; secondly, in order not to discourage poor laboring people whom they brought over in numbers from Fatherland. In the course of three or four years, when the country became adapted to agriculture, they built themselves handsome houses, spending on them several thousands."
In this course which our ancestors took there was a show of prudence339 at least, as if their principle were to satisfy the more pressing wants first. But are the more pressing wants satisfied now? When I think of acquiring for myself one of our luxurious dwellings, I am deterred340, for, so to speak, the country is not yet adapted to human culture, and we are still forced to cut our spiritual bread far thinner than our forefathers341 did their wheaten. Not that all architectural ornament335 is to be neglected even in the rudest periods; but let our houses first be lined with beauty, where they come in contact with our lives, like the tenement342 of the shellfish, and not overlaid with it. But, alas343! I have been inside one or two of them, and know what they are lined with.
Though we are not so degenerate but that we might possibly live in a cave or a wigwam or wear skins today, it certainly is better to accept the advantages, though so dearly bought, which the invention and industry of mankind offer. In such a neighborhood as this, boards and shingles, lime and bricks, are cheaper and more easily obtained than suitable caves, or whole logs, or bark in sufficient quantities, or even well-tempered clay or flat stones. I speak understandingly on this subject, for I have made myself acquainted with it both theoretically and practically. With a little more wit we might use these materials so as to become richer than the richest now are, and make our civilization a blessing. The civilized man is a more experienced and wiser savage. But to make haste to my own experiment.
Near the end of March, 1845, I borrowed an axe and went down to the woods by Walden Pond, nearest to where I intended to build my house, and began to cut down some tall, arrowy white pines, still in their youth, for timber. It is difficult to begin without borrowing, but perhaps it is the most generous course thus to permit your fellow-men to have an interest in your enterprise. The owner of the axe, as he released his hold on it, said that it was the apple of his eye; but I returned it sharper than I received it. It was a pleasant hillside where I worked, covered with pine woods, through which I looked out on the pond, and a small open field in the woods where pines and hickories were springing up. The ice in the pond was not yet dissolved, though there were some open spaces, and it was all dark-colored and saturated344 with water. There were some slight flurries of snow during the days that I worked there; but for the most part when I came out on to the railroad, on my way home, its yellow sand heap stretched away gleaming in the hazy345 atmosphere, and the rails shone in the spring sun, and I heard the lark346 and pewee and other birds already come to commence another year with us. They were pleasant spring days, in which the winter of man's discontent was thawing348 as well as the earth, and the life that had lain torpid349 began to stretch itself. One day, when my axe had come off and I had cut a green hickory for a wedge, driving it with a stone, and had placed the whole to soak in a pond-hole in order to swell350 the wood, I saw a striped snake run into the water, and he lay on the bottom, apparently351 without inconvenience, as long as I stayed there, or more than a quarter of an hour; perhaps because he had not yet fairly come out of the torpid state. It appeared to me that for a like reason men remain in their present low and primitive condition; but if they should feel the influence of the spring of springs arousing them, they would of necessity rise to a higher and more ethereal life. I had previously352 seen the snakes in frosty mornings in my path with portions of their bodies still numb172 and inflexible353, waiting for the sun to thaw347 them. On the 1st of April it rained and melted the ice, and in the early part of the day, which was very foggy, I heard a stray goose groping about over the pond and cackling as if lost, or like the spirit of the fog.
So I went on for some days cutting and hewing354 timber, and also studs and rafters, all with my narrow axe, not having many communicable or scholar-like thoughts, singing to myself, --
Men say they know many things;
But lo! they have taken wings --
The arts and sciences,
And a thousand appliances;
The wind that blows
Is all that any body knows.
I hewed355 the main timbers six inches square, most of the studs on two sides only, and the rafters and floor timbers on one side, leaving the rest of the bark on, so that they were just as straight and much stronger than sawed ones. Each stick was carefully mortised or tenoned by its stump357, for I had borrowed other tools by this time. My days in the woods were not very long ones; yet I usually carried my dinner of bread and butter, and read the newspaper in which it was wrapped, at noon, sitting amid the green pine boughs which I had cut off, and to my bread was imparted some of their fragrance358, for my hands were covered with a thick coat of pitch. Before I had done I was more the friend than the foe359 of the pine tree, though I had cut down some of them, having become better acquainted with it. Sometimes a rambler in the wood was attracted by the sound of my axe, and we chatted pleasantly over the chips which I had made.
By the middle of April, for I made no haste in my work, but rather made the most of it, my house was framed and ready for the raising. I had already bought the shanty360 of James Collins, an Irishman who worked on the Fitchburg Railroad, for boards. James Collins' shanty was considered an uncommonly361 fine one. When I called to see it he was not at home. I walked about the outside, at first unobserved from within, the window was so deep and high. It was of small dimensions, with a peaked cottage roof, and not much else to be seen, the dirt being raised five feet all around as if it were a compost heap. The roof was the soundest part, though a good deal warped362 and made brittle364 by the sun. Doorsill there was none, but a perennial365 passage for the hens under the door board. Mrs. C. came to the door and asked me to view it from the inside. The hens were driven in by my approach. It was dark, and had a dirt floor for the most part, dank, clammy, and aguish, only here a board and there a board which would not bear removal. She lighted a lamp to show me the inside of the roof and the walls, and also that the board floor extended under the bed, warning me not to step into the cellar, a sort of dust hole two feet deep. In her own words, they were "good boards overhead, good boards all around, and a good window" -- of two whole squares originally, only the cat had passed out that way lately. There was a stove, a bed, and a place to sit, an infant in the house where it was born, a silk parasol, gilt-framed looking-glass, and a patent new coffee-mill nailed to an oak sapling, all told. The bargain was soon concluded, for James had in the meanwhile returned. I to pay four dollars and twenty-five cents tonight, he to vacate at five tomorrow morning, selling to nobody else meanwhile: I to take possession at six. It were well, he said, to be there early, and anticipate certain indistinct but wholly unjust claims on the score of ground rent and fuel. This he assured me was the only encumbrance. At six I passed him and his family on the road. One large bundle held their all -- bed, coffee-mill, looking-glass, hens -- all but the cat; she took to the woods and became a wild cat, and, as I learned afterward366, trod in a trap set for woodchucks, and so became a dead cat at last.
I took down this dwelling the same morning, drawing the nails, and removed it to the pond-side by small cartloads, spreading the boards on the grass there to bleach367 and warp363 back again in the sun. One early thrush gave me a note or two as I drove along the woodland path. I was informed treacherously368 by a young Patrick that neighbor Seeley, an Irishman, in the intervals369 of the carting, transferred the still tolerable, straight, and drivable nails, staples370, and spikes371 to his pocket, and then stood when I came back to pass the time of day, and look freshly up, unconcerned, with spring thoughts, at the devastation372; there being a dearth373 of work, as he said. He was there to represent spectatordom, and help make this seemingly insignificant374 event one with the removal of the gods of Troy.
I dug my cellar in the side of a hill sloping to the south, where a woodchuck had formerly dug his burrow, down through sumach and blackberry roots, and the lowest stain of vegetation, six feet square by seven deep, to a fine sand where potatoes would not freeze in any winter. The sides were left shelving, and not stoned; but the sun having never shone on them, the sand still keeps its place. It was but two hours' work. I took particular pleasure in this breaking of ground, for in almost all latitudes377 men dig into the earth for an equable temperature. Under the most splendid house in the city is still to be found the cellar where they store their roots as of old, and long after the superstructure has disappeared posterity378 remark its dent10 in the earth. The house is still but a sort of porch at the entrance of a burrow.
At length, in the beginning of May, with the help of some of my acquaintances, rather to improve so good an occasion for neighborliness than from any necessity, I set up the frame of my house. No man was ever more honored in the character of his raisers than I. They are destined379, I trust, to assist at the raising of loftier structures one day. I began to occupy my house on the 4th of July, as soon as it was boarded and roofed, for the boards were carefully feather-edged and lapped, so that it was perfectly380 impervious381 to rain, but before boarding I laid the foundation of a chimney at one end, bringing two cartloads of stones up the hill from the pond in my arms. I built the chimney after my hoeing in the fall, before a fire became necessary for warmth, doing my cooking in the meanwhile out of doors on the ground, early in the morning: which mode I still think is in some respects more convenient and agreeable than the usual one. When it stormed before my bread was baked, I fixed382 a few boards over the fire, and sat under them to watch my loaf, and passed some pleasant hours in that way. In those days, when my hands were much employed, I read but little, but the least scraps383 of paper which lay on the ground, my holder384, or tablecloth385, afforded me as much entertainment, in fact answered the same purpose as the Iliad.
It would be worth the while to build still more deliberately than I did, considering, for instance, what foundation a door, a window, a cellar, a garret, have in the nature of man, and perchance never raising any superstructure until we found a better reason for it than our temporal necessities even. There is some of the same fitness in a man's building his own house that there is in a bird's building its own nest. Who knows but if men constructed their dwellings with their own hands, and provided food for themselves and families simply and honestly enough, the poetic386 faculty387 would be universally developed, as birds universally sing when they are so engaged? But alas! we do like cowbirds and cuckoos, which lay their eggs in nests which other birds have built, and cheer no traveller with their chattering388 and unmusical notes. Shall we forever resign the pleasure of construction to the carpenter? What does architecture amount to in the experience of the mass of men? I never in all my walks came across a man engaged in so simple and natural an occupation as building his house. We belong to the community. It is not the tailor alone who is the ninth part of a man; it is as much the preacher, and the merchant, and the farmer. Where is this division of labor to end? and what object does it finally serve? No doubt another may also think for me; but it is not therefore desirable that he should do so to the exclusion389 of my thinking for myself.
True, there are architects so called in this country, and I have heard of one at least possessed with the idea of making architectural ornaments390 have a core of truth, a necessity, and hence a beauty, as if it were a revelation to him. All very well perhaps from his point of view, but only a little better than the common dilettantism391. A sentimental392 reformer in architecture, he began at the cornice, not at the foundation. It was only how to put a core of truth within the ornaments, that every sugarplum, in fact, might have an almond or caraway seed in it -- though I hold that almonds are most wholesome393 without the sugar -- and not how the inhabitant, the indweller, might build truly within and without, and let the ornaments take care of themselves. What reasonable man ever supposed that ornaments were something outward and in the skin merely -- that the tortoise got his spotted394 shell, or the shell-fish its mother-o'-pearl tints395, by such a contract as the inhabitants of Broadway their Trinity Church? But a man has no more to do with the style of architecture of his house than a tortoise with that of its shell: nor need the soldier be so idle as to try to paint the precise color of his virtue396 on his standard. The enemy will find it out. He may turn pale when the trial comes. This man seemed to me to lean over the cornice, and timidly whisper his half truth to the rude occupants who really knew it better than he. What of architectural beauty I now see, I know has gradually grown from within outward, out of the necessities and character of the indweller, who is the only builder -- out of some unconscious truthfulness397, and nobleness, without ever a thought for the appearance and whatever additional beauty of this kind is destined to be produced will be preceded by a like unconscious beauty of life. The most interesting dwellings in this country, as the painter knows, are the most unpretending, humble167 log huts and cottages of the poor commonly; it is the life of the inhabitants whose shells they are, and not any peculiarity399 in their surfaces merely, which makes them picturesque400; and equally interesting will be the citizen's suburban401 box, when his life shall be as simple and as agreeable to the imagination, and there is as little straining after effect in the style of his dwelling. A great proportion of architectural ornaments are literally402 hollow, and a September gale403 would strip them off, like borrowed plumes404, without injury to the substantials. They can do without architecture who have no olives nor wines in the cellar. What if an equal ado were made about the ornaments of style in literature, and the architects of our bibles spent as much time about their cornices as the architects of our churches do? So are made the belles-lettres and the beaux-arts and their professors. Much it concerns a man, forsooth, how a few sticks are slanted405 over him or under him, and what colors are daubed upon his box. It would signify somewhat, if, in any earnest sense, he slanted them and daubed it; but the spirit having departed out of the tenant406, it is of a piece with constructing his own coffin407 -- the architecture of the grave -- and "carpenter" is but another name for "coffin-maker." One man says, in his despair or indifference408 to life, take up a handful of the earth at your feet, and paint your house that color. Is he thinking of his last and narrow house? Toss up a copper for it as well. What an abundance of leisure be must have! Why do you take up a handful of dirt? Better paint your house your own complexion409; let it turn pale or blush for you. An enterprise to improve the style of cottage architecture! When you have got my ornaments ready, I will wear them.
Before winter I built a chimney, and shingled410 the sides of my house, which were already impervious to rain, with imperfect and sappy shingles made of the first slice of the log, whose edges I was obliged to straighten with a plane.
I have thus a tight shingled and plastered house, ten feet wide by fifteen long, and eight-feet posts, with a garret and a closet, a large window on each side, two trap doors, one door at the end, and a brick fireplace opposite. The exact cost of my house, paying the usual price for such materials as I used, but not counting the work, all of which was done by myself, was as follows; and I give the details because very few are able to tell exactly what their houses cost, and fewer still, if any, the separate cost of the various materials which compose them:--
Boards .......................... $ 8.03+, mostly shanty boards.
Refuse shingles for roof sides ... 4.00
Laths ............................ 1.25
Two second-hand411 windows
with glass .................... 2.43
One thousand old brick ........... 4.00
Two casks of lime ................ 2.40 That was high.
Hair ............................. 0.31 More than I needed.
Mantle-tree iron ................. 0.15
Nails ............................ 3.90
Hinges and screws ................ 0.14
Latch412 ............................ 0.10
Chalk ............................ 0.01
Transportation ................... 1.40 I carried a good part
------- on my back.
In all ...................... $28.12+
These are all the materials, excepting the timber, stones, and sand, which I claimed by squatter414's right. I have also a small woodshed adjoining, made chiefly of the stuff which was left after building the house.
I intend to build me a house which will surpass any on the main street in Concord in grandeur415 and luxury, as soon as it pleases me as much and will cost me no more than my present one.
I thus found that the student who wishes for a shelter can obtain one for a lifetime at an expense not greater than the rent which he now pays annually. If I seem to boast more than is becoming, my excuse is that I brag416 for humanity rather than for myself; and my shortcomings and inconsistencies do not affect the truth of my statement. Notwithstanding much cant375 and hypocrisy417 -- chaff418 which I find it difficult to separate from my wheat, but for which I am as sorry as any man -- I will breathe freely and stretch myself in this respect, it is such a relief to both the moral and physical system; and I am resolved that I will not through humility419 become the devil's attorney. I will endeavor to speak a good word for the truth. At Cambridge College the mere rent of a student's room, which is only a little larger than my own, is thirty dollars each year, though the corporation had the advantage of building thirty-two side by side and under one roof, and the occupant suffers the inconvenience of many and noisy neighbors, and perhaps a residence in the fourth story. I cannot but think that if we had more true wisdom in these respects, not only less education would be needed, because, forsooth, more would already have been acquired, but the pecuniary expense of getting an education would in a great measure vanish. Those conveniences which the student requires at Cambridge or elsewhere cost him or somebody else ten times as great a sacrifice of life as they would with proper management on both sides. Those things for which the most money is demanded are never the things which the student most wants. Tuition, for instance, is an important item in the term bill, while for the far more valuable education which he gets by associating with the most cultivated of his contemporaries no charge is made. The mode of founding a college is, commonly, to get up a subscription420 of dollars and cents, and then, following blindly the principles of a division of labor to its extreme -- a principle which should never be followed but with circumspection421 -- to call in a contractor422 who makes this a subject of speculation423, and he employs Irishmen or other operatives actually to lay the foundations, while the students that are to be are said to be fitting themselves for it; and for these oversights424 successive generations have to pay. I think that it would be better than this, for the students, or those who desire to be benefited by it, even to lay the foundation themselves. The student who secures his coveted425 leisure and retirement426 by systematically427 shirking any labor necessary to man obtains but an ignoble428 and unprofitable leisure, defrauding429 himself of the experience which alone can make leisure fruitful. "But," says one, "you do not mean that the students should go to work with their hands instead of their heads?" I do not mean that exactly, but I mean something which he might think a good deal like that; I mean that they should not play life, or study it merely, while the community supports them at this expensive game, but earnestly live it from beginning to end. How could youths better learn to live than by at once trying the experiment of living? Methinks this would exercise their minds as much as mathematics. If I wished a boy to know something about the arts and sciences, for instance, I would not pursue the common course, which is merely to send him into the neighborhood of some professor, where anything is professed430 and practised but the art of life; -- to survey the world through a telescope or a microscope, and never with his natural eye; to study chemistry, and not learn how his bread is made, or mechanics, and not learn how it is earned; to discover new satellites to Neptune431, and not detect the motes432 in his eyes, or to what vagabond he is a satellite himself; or to be devoured434 by the monsters that swarm435 all around him, while contemplating the monsters in a drop of vinegar. Which would have advanced the most at the end of a month -- the boy who had made his own jackknife from the ore which he had dug and smelted436, reading as much as would be necessary for this -- or the boy who had attended the lectures on metallurgy at the Institute in the meanwhile, and had received a Rodgers' penknife from his father? Which would be most likely to cut his fingers?... To my astonishment437 I was informed on leaving college that I had studied navigation! -- why, if I had taken one turn down the harbor I should have known more about it. Even the poor student studies and is taught only political economy, while that economy of living which is synonymous with philosophy is not even sincerely professed in our colleges. The consequence is, that while he is reading Adam Smith, Ricardo, and Say, he runs his father in debt irretrievably.
As with our colleges, so with a hundred "modern improvements"; there is an illusion about them; there is not always a positive advance. The devil goes on exacting438 compound interest to the last for his early share and numerous succeeding investments in them. Our inventions are wont to be pretty toys, which distract our attention from serious things. They are but improved means to an unimproved end, an end which it was already but too easy to arrive at; as railroads lead to Boston or New York. We are in great haste to construct a magnetic telegraph from Maine to Texas; but Maine and Texas, it may be, have nothing important to communicate. Either is in such a predicament as the man who was earnest to be introduced to a distinguished deaf woman, but when he was presented, and one end of her ear trumpet439 was put into his hand, had nothing to say. As if the main object were to talk fast and not to talk sensibly. We are eager to tunnel under the Atlantic and bring the Old World some weeks nearer to the New; but perchance the first news that will leak through into the broad, flapping American ear will be that the Princess Adelaide has the whooping440 cough. After all, the man whose horse trots441 a mile in a minute does not carry the most important messages; he is not an evangelist, nor does he come round eating locusts442 and wild honey. I doubt if Flying Childers ever carried a peck of corn to mill.
One says to me, "I wonder that you do not lay up money; you love to travel; you might take the cars and go to Fitchburg today and see the country." But I am wiser than that. I have learned that the swiftest traveller is he that goes afoot. I say to my friend, Suppose we try who will get there first. The distance is thirty miles; the fare ninety cents. That is almost a day's wages. I remember when wages were sixty cents a day for laborers on this very road. Well, I start now on foot, and get there before night; I have travelled at that rate by the week together. You will in the meanwhile have earned your fare, and arrive there some time tomorrow, or possibly this evening, if you are lucky enough to get a job in season. Instead of going to Fitchburg, you will be working here the greater part of the day. And so, if the railroad reached round the world, I think that I should keep ahead of you; and as for seeing the country and getting experience of that kind, I should have to cut your acquaintance altogether.
Such is the universal law, which no man can ever outwit, and with regard to the railroad even we may say it is as broad as it is long. To make a railroad round the world available to all mankind is equivalent to grading the whole surface of the planet. Men have an indistinct notion that if they keep up this activity of joint296 stocks and spades long enough all will at length ride somewhere, in next to no time, and for nothing; but though a crowd rushes to the depot443, and the conductor shouts "All aboard!" when the smoke is blown away and the vapor58 condensed, it will be perceived that a few are riding, but the rest are run over -- and it will be called, and will be, "A melancholy444 accident." No doubt they can ride at last who shall have earned their fare, that is, if they survive so long, but they will probably have lost their elasticity445 and desire to travel by that time. This spending of the best part of one's life earning money in order to enjoy a questionable446 liberty during the least valuable part of it reminds me of the Englishman who went to India to make a fortune first, in order that he might return to England and live the life of a poet. He should have gone up garret at once. "What!" exclaim a million Irishmen starting up from all the shanties in the land, "is not this railroad which we have built a good thing?" Yes, I answer, comparatively good, that is, you might have done worse; but I wish, as you are brothers of mine, that you could have spent your time better than digging in this dirt.
Before I finished my house, wishing to earn ten or twelve dollars by some honest and agreeable method, in order to meet my unusual expenses, I planted about two acres and a half of light and sandy soil near it chiefly with beans, but also a small part with potatoes, corn, peas, and turnips447. The whole lot contains eleven acres, mostly growing up to pines and hickories, and was sold the preceding season for eight dollars and eight cents an acre. One farmer said that it was "good for nothing but to raise cheeping squirrels on." I put no manure448 whatever on this land, not being the owner, but merely a squatter, and not expecting to cultivate so much again, and I did not quite hoe it all once. I got out several cords of stumps449 in plowing450, which supplied me with fuel for a long time, and left small circles of virgin451 mould, easily distinguishable through the summer by the greater luxuriance of the beans there. The dead and for the most part unmerchantable wood behind my house, and the driftwood from the pond, have supplied the remainder of my fuel. I was obliged to hire a team and a man for the plowing, though I held the plow myself. My farm outgoes for the first season were, for implements, seed, work, etc., $14.72+. The seed corn was given me. This never costs anything to speak of, unless you plant more than enough. I got twelve bushels of beans, and eighteen bushels of potatoes, beside some peas and sweet corn. The yellow corn and turnips were too late to come to anything. My whole income from the farm was
$ 23.44
Deducting452 the outgoes ............ 14.72+
-------
There are left .................. $ 8.71+
beside produce consumed and on hand at the time this estimate was made of the value of $4.50 -- the amount on hand much more than balancing a little grass which I did not raise. All things considered, that is, considering the importance of a man's soul and of today, notwithstanding the short time occupied by my experiment, nay453, partly even because of its transient character, I believe that that was doing better than any farmer in Concord did that year.
The next year I did better still, for I spaded up all the land which I required, about a third of an acre, and I learned from the experience of both years, not being in the least awed356 by many celebrated454 works on husbandry, Arthur Young among the rest, that if one would live simply and eat only the crop which he raised, and raise no more than he ate, and not exchange it for an insufficient455 quantity of more luxurious and expensive things, he would need to cultivate only a few rods of ground, and that it would be cheaper to spade up that than to use oxen to plow it, and to select a fresh spot from time to time than to manure the old, and he could do all his necessary farm work as it were with his left hand at odd hours in the summer; and thus he would not be tied to an ox, or horse, or cow, or pig, as at present. I desire to speak impartially456 on this point, and as one not interested in the success or failure of the present economical and social arrangements. I was more independent than any farmer in Concord, for I was not anchored to a house or farm, but could follow the bent457 of my genius, which is a very crooked458 one, every moment. Beside being better off than they already, if my house had been burned or my crops had failed, I should have been nearly as well off as before.
I am wont to think that men are not so much the keepers of herds as herds are the keepers of men, the former are so much the freer. Men and oxen exchange work; but if we consider necessary work only, the oxen will be seen to have greatly the advantage, their farm is so much the larger. Man does some of his part of the exchange work in his six weeks of haying, and it is no boy's play. Certainly no nation that lived simply in all respects, that is, no nation of philosophers, would commit so great a blunder as to use the labor of animals. True, there never was and is not likely soon to be a nation of philosophers, nor am I certain it is desirable that there should be. However, I should never have broken a horse or bull and taken him to board for any work he might do for me, for fear I should become a horseman or a herdsman merely; and if society seems to be the gainer by so doing, are we certain that what is one man's gain is not another's loss, and that the stable-boy has equal cause with his master to be satisfied? Granted that some public works would not have been constructed without this aid, and let man share the glory of such with the ox and horse; does it follow that he could not have accomplished works yet more worthy459 of himself in that case? When men begin to do, not merely unnecessary or artistic460, but luxurious and idle work, with their assistance, it is inevitable461 that a few do all the exchange work with the oxen, or, in other words, become the slaves of the strongest. Man thus not only works for the animal within him, but, for a symbol of this, he works for the animal without him. Though we have many substantial houses of brick or stone, the prosperity of the farmer is still measured by the degree to which the barn overshadows the house. This town is said to have the largest houses for oxen, cows, and horses hereabouts, and it is not behindhand in its public buildings; but there are very few halls for free worship or free speech in this county. It should not be by their architecture, but why not even by their power of abstract thought, that nations should seek to commemorate462 themselves? How much more admirable the Bhagvat-Geeta than all the ruins of the East! Towers and temples are the luxury of princes. A simple and independent mind does not toil at the bidding of any prince. Genius is not a retainer to any emperor, nor is its material silver, or gold, or marble, except to a trifling extent. To what end, pray, is so much stone hammered? In Arcadia, when I was there, I did not see any hammering stone. Nations are possessed with an insane ambition to perpetuate463 the memory of themselves by the amount of hammered stone they leave. What if equal pains were taken to smooth and polish their manners? One piece of good sense would be more memorable464 than a monument as high as the moon. I love better to see stones in place. The grandeur of Thebes was a vulgar grandeur. More sensible is a rod of stone wall that bounds an honest man's field than a hundred-gated Thebes that has wandered farther from the true end of life. The religion and civilization which are barbaric and heathenish build splendid temples; but what you might call Christianity does not. Most of the stone a nation hammers goes toward its tomb only. It buries itself alive. As for the Pyramids, there is nothing to wonder at in them so much as the fact that so many men could be found degraded enough to spend their lives constructing a tomb for some ambitious booby, whom it would have been wiser and manlier465 to have drowned in the Nile, and then given his body to the dogs. I might possibly invent some excuse for them and him, but I have no time for it. As for the religion and love of art of the builders, it is much the same all the world over, whether the building be an Egyptian temple or the United States Bank. It costs more than it comes to. The mainspring is vanity, assisted by the love of garlic and bread and butter. Mr. Balcom, a promising young architect, designs it on the back of his Vitruvius, with hard pencil and ruler, and the job is let out to Dobson & Sons, stonecutters. When the thirty centuries begin to look down on it, mankind begin to look up at it. As for your high towers and monuments, there was a crazy fellow once in this town who undertook to dig through to China, and he got so far that, as he said, he heard the Chinese pots and kettles rattle466; but I think that I shall not go out of my way to admire the hole which he made. Many are concerned about the monuments of the West and the East -- to know who built them. For my part, I should like to know who in those days did not build them -- who were above such trifling. But to proceed with my statistics.
By surveying, carpentry, and day-labor of various other kinds in the village in the meanwhile, for I have as many trades as fingers, I had earned $13.34. The expense of food for eight months, namely, from July 4th to March 1st, the time when these estimates were made, though I lived there more than two years -- not counting potatoes, a little green corn, and some peas, which I had raised, nor considering the value of what was on hand at the last date -- was
Rice .................... $ 1.73 1/2
Molasses ................. 1.73 Cheapest form of the
saccharine467.
Rye meal ................. 1.04 3/4
Indian meal .............. 0.99 3/4 Cheaper than rye.
Pork ..................... 0.22
All experiments which failed:
Flour .................... 0.88 Costs more than Indian meal,
both money and trouble.
Sugar .................... 0.80
Lard ..................... 0.65
Apples ................... 0.25
Dried apple .............. 0.22
Sweet potatoes ........... 0.10
One pumpkin .............. 0.06
One watermelon ........... 0.02
Salt ..................... 0.03
Yes, I did eat $8.74, all told; but I should not thus unblushingly publish my guilt468, if I did not know that most of my readers were equally guilty with myself, and that their deeds would look no better in print. The next year I sometimes caught a mess of fish for my dinner, and once I went so far as to slaughter469 a woodchuck which ravaged470 my bean-field -- effect his transmigration, as a Tartar would say -- and devour433 him, partly for experiment's sake; but though it afforded me a momentary471 enjoyment, notwithstanding a musky flavor, I saw that the longest use would not make that a good practice, however it might seem to have your woodchucks ready dressed by the village butcher.
Clothing and some incidental expenses within the same dates, though little can be inferred from this item, amounted to
$ 8.40-3/4
Oil and some household utensils ........ 2.00
So that all the pecuniary outgoes, excepting for washing and mending, which for the most part were done out of the house, and their bills have not yet been received -- and these are all and more than all the ways by which money necessarily goes out in this part of the world -- were
House ................................. $ 28.12+
Farm one year ........................... 14.72+
Food eight months ....................... 8.74
Clothing, etc., eight months ............ 8.40-3/4
Oil, etc., eight months ................. 2.00
-----------
In all ............................ $ 61.99-3/4
I address myself now to those of my readers who have a living to get. And to meet this I have for farm produce sold
$ 23.44
Earned by day-labor .................... 13.34
-------
In all ............................ $ 36.78,
which subtracted from the sum of the outgoes leaves a balance of $25.21 3/4 on the one side -- this being very nearly the means with which I started, and the measure of expenses to be incurred472 -- and on the other, beside the leisure and independence and health thus secured, a comfortable house for me as long as I choose to occupy it.
These statistics, however accidental and therefore uninstructive they may appear, as they have a certain completeness, have a certain value also. Nothing was given me of which I have not rendered some account. It appears from the above estimate, that my food alone cost me in money about twenty-seven cents a week. It was, for nearly two years after this, rye and Indian meal without yeast473, potatoes, rice, a very little salt pork, molasses, and salt; and my drink, water. It was fit that I should live on rice, mainly, who love so well the philosophy of India. To meet the objections of some inveterate474 cavillers, I may as well state, that if I dined out occasionally, as I always had done, and I trust shall have opportunities to do again, it was frequently to the detriment475 of my domestic arrangements. But the dining out, being, as I have stated, a constant element, does not in the least affect a comparative statement like this.
I learned from my two years' experience that it would cost incredibly little trouble to obtain one's necessary food, even in this latitude376; that a man may use as simple a diet as the animals, and yet retain health and strength. I have made a satisfactory dinner, satisfactory on several accounts, simply off a dish of purslane (Portulaca oleracea) which I gathered in my cornfield, boiled and salted. I give the Latin on account of the savoriness of the trivial name. And pray what more can a reasonable man desire, in peaceful times, in ordinary noons, than a sufficient number of ears of green sweet corn boiled, with the addition of salt? Even the little variety which I used was a yielding to the demands of appetite, and not of health. Yet men have come to such a pass that they frequently starve, not for want of necessaries, but for want of luxuries; and I know a good woman who thinks that her son lost his life because he took to drinking water only.
The reader will perceive that I am treating the subject rather from an economic than a dietetic point of view, and he will not venture to put my abstemiousness476 to the test unless he has a well-stocked larder477.
Bread I at first made of pure Indian meal and salt, genuine hoe-cakes, which I baked before my fire out of doors on a shingle256 or the end of a stick of timber sawed off in building my house; but it was wont to get smoked and to have a piny flavor, I tried flour also; but have at last found a mixture of rye and Indian meal most convenient and agreeable. In cold weather it was no little amusement to bake several small loaves of this in succession, tending and turning them as carefully as an Egyptian his hatching eggs. They were a real cereal fruit which I ripened478, and they had to my senses a fragrance like that of other noble fruits, which I kept in as long as possible by wrapping them in cloths. I made a study of the ancient and indispensable art of bread-making, consulting such authorities as offered, going back to the primitive days and first invention of the unleavened kind, when from the wildness of nuts and meats men first reached the mildness and refinement480 of this diet, and travelling gradually down in my studies through that accidental souring of the dough481 which, it is supposed, taught the leavening482 process, and through the various fermentations thereafter, till I came to "good, sweet, wholesome bread," the staff of life. Leaven479, which some deem the soul of bread, the spiritus which fills its cellular tissue, which is religiously preserved like the vestal fire -- some precious bottleful, I suppose, first brought over in the Mayflower, did the business for America, and its influence is still rising, swelling483, spreading, in cerealian billows over the land -- this seed I regularly and faithfully procured484 from the village, till at length one morning I forgot the rules, and scalded my yeast; by which accident I discovered that even this was not indispensable -- for my discoveries were not by the synthetic485 but analytic486 process -- and I have gladly omitted it since, though most housewives earnestly assured me that safe and wholesome bread without yeast might not be, and elderly people prophesied487 a speedy decay of the vital forces. Yet I find it not to be an essential ingredient, and after going without it for a year am still in the land of the living; and I am glad to escape the trivialness of carrying a bottleful in my pocket, which would sometimes pop and discharge its contents to my discomfiture488. It is simpler and more respectable to omit it. Man is an animal who more than any other can adapt himself to all climates and circumstances. Neither did I put any sal-soda, or other acid or alkali, into my bread. It would seem that I made it according to the recipe which Marcus Porcius Cato gave about two centuries before Christ. "Panem depsticium sic facito. Manus mortariumque bene lavato. Farinam in mortarium indito, aquae paulatim addito, subigitoque pulchre. Ubi bene subegeris, defingito, coquitoque sub testu." Which I take to mean, -- "Make kneaded bread thus. Wash your hands and trough well. Put the meal into the trough, add water gradually, and knead it thoroughly. When you have kneaded it well, mould it, and bake it under a cover," that is, in a baking kettle. Not a word about leaven. But I did not always use this staff of life. At one time, owing to the emptiness of my purse, I saw none of it for more than a month.
Every New Englander might easily raise all his own breadstuffs in this land of rye and Indian corn, and not depend on distant and fluctuating markets for them. Yet so far are we from simplicity and independence that, in Concord, fresh and sweet meal is rarely sold in the shops, and hominy and corn in a still coarser form are hardly used by any. For the most part the farmer gives to his cattle and hogs490 the grain of his own producing, and buys flour, which is at least no more wholesome, at a greater cost, at the store. I saw that I could easily raise my bushel or two of rye and Indian corn, for the former will grow on the poorest land, and the latter does not require the best, and grind them in a hand-mill, and so do without rice and pork; and if I must have some concentrated sweet, I found by experiment that I could make a very good molasses either of pumpkins491 or beets492, and I knew that I needed only to set out a few maples493 to obtain it more easily still, and while these were growing I could use various substitutes beside those which I have named. "For," as the Forefathers sang,--
"we can make liquor to sweeten our lips
Of pumpkins and parsnips and walnut-tree chips."
Finally, as for salt, that grossest of groceries, to obtain this might be a fit occasion for a visit to the seashore, or, if I did without it altogether, I should probably drink the less water. I do not learn that the Indians ever troubled themselves to go after it.
Thus I could avoid all trade and barter494, so far as my food was concerned, and having a shelter already, it would only remain to get clothing and fuel. The pantaloons which I now wear were woven in a farmer's family -- thank Heaven there is so much virtue still in man; for I think the fall from the farmer to the operative as great and memorable as that from the man to the farmer; -- and in a new country, fuel is an encumbrance. As for a habitat, if I were not permitted still to squat413, I might purchase one acre at the same price for which the land I cultivated was sold -- namely, eight dollars and eight cents. But as it was, I considered that I enhanced the value of the land by squatting495 on it.
There is a certain class of unbelievers who sometimes ask me such questions as, if I think that I can live on vegetable food alone; and to strike at the root of the matter at once -- for the root is faith -- I am accustomed to answer such, that I can live on board nails. If they cannot understand that, they cannot understand much that I have to say. For my part, I am glad to bear of experiments of this kind being tried; as that a young man tried for a fortnight to live on hard, raw corn on the ear, using his teeth for all mortar489. The squirrel tribe tried the same and succeeded. The human race is interested in these experiments, though a few old women who are incapacitated for them, or who own their thirds in mills, may be alarmed.
My furniture, part of which I made myself -- and the rest cost me nothing of which I have not rendered an account -- consisted of a bed, a table, a desk, three chairs, a looking-glass three inches in diameter, a pair of tongs496 and andirons, a kettle, a skillet, and a frying-pan, a dipper, a wash-bowl, two knives and forks, three plates, one cup, one spoon, a jug497 for oil, a jug for molasses, and a japanned lamp. None is so poor that he need sit on a pumpkin. That is shiftlessness. There is a plenty of such chairs as I like best in the village garrets to be had for taking them away. Furniture! Thank God, I can sit and I can stand without the aid of a furniture warehouse498. What man but a philosopher would not be ashamed to see his furniture packed in a cart and going up country exposed to the light of heaven and the eyes of men, a beggarly account of empty boxes? That is Spaulding's furniture. I could never tell from inspecting such a load whether it belonged to a so-called rich man or a poor one; the owner always seemed poverty-stricken. Indeed, the more you have of such things the poorer you are. Each load looks as if it contained the contents of a dozen shanties; and if one shanty is poor, this is a dozen times as poor. Pray, for what do we move ever but to get rid of our furniture, our exuvioe: at last to go from this world to another newly furnished, and leave this to be burned? It is the same as if all these traps were buckled499 to a man's belt, and he could not move over the rough country where our lines are cast without dragging them -- dragging his trap. He was a lucky fox that left his tail in the trap. The muskrat71 will gnaw500 his third leg off to be free. No wonder man has lost his elasticity. How often he is at a dead set! "Sir, if I may be so bold, what do you mean by a dead set?" If you are a seer, whenever you meet a man you will see all that he owns, ay, and much that he pretends to disown, behind him, even to his kitchen furniture and all the trumpery501 which he saves and will not burn, and he will appear to be harnessed to it and making what headway he can. I think that the man is at a dead set who has got through a knot-hole or gateway502 where his sledge503 load of furniture cannot follow him. I cannot but feel compassion504 when I hear some trig, compact-looking man, seemingly free, all girded and ready, speak of his "furniture," as whether it is insured or not. "But what shall I do with my furniture?" -- My gay butterfly is entangled505 in a spider's web then. Even those who seem for a long while not to have any, if you inquire more narrowly you will find have some stored in somebody's barn. I look upon England today as an old gentleman who is travelling with a great deal of baggage, trumpery which has accumulated from long housekeeping, which he has not the courage to burn; great trunk, little trunk, bandbox, and bundle. Throw away the first three at least. It would surpass the powers of a well man nowadays to take up his bed and walk, and I should certainly advise a sick one to lay down his bed and run. When I have met an immigrant tottering506 under a bundle which contained his all -- looking like an enormous wen which had grown out of the nape of his neck -- I have pitied him, not because that was his all, but because he had all that to carry. If I have got to drag my trap, I will take care that it be a light one and do not nip me in a vital part. But perchance it would be wisest never to put one's paw into it.
I would observe, by the way, that it costs me nothing for curtains, for I have no gazers to shut out but the sun and moon, and I am willing that they should look in. The moon will not sour milk nor taint121 meat of mine, nor will the sun injure my furniture or fade my carpet; and if he is sometimes too warm a friend, I find it still better economy to retreat behind some curtain which nature has provided, than to add a single item to the details of housekeeping. A lady once offered me a mat, but as I had no room to spare within the house, nor time to spare within or without to shake it, I declined it, preferring to wipe my feet on the sod before my door. It is best to avoid the beginnings of evil.
Not long since I was present at the auction507 of a deacon's effects, for his life had not been ineffectual:--
"The evil that men do lives after them."
As usual, a great proportion was trumpery which had begun to accumulate in his father's day. Among the rest was a dried tapeworm. And now, after lying half a century in his garret and other dust holes, these things were not burned; instead of a bonfire, or purifying destruction of them, there was an auction, or increasing of them. The neighbors eagerly collected to view them, bought them all, and carefully transported them to their garrets and dust holes, to lie there till their estates are settled, when they will start again. When a man dies he kicks the dust.
The customs of some savage nations might, perchance, be profitably imitated by us, for they at least go through the semblance508 of casting their slough annually; they have the idea of the thing, whether they have the reality or not. Would it not be well if we were to celebrate such a "busk," or "feast of first fruits," as Bartram describes to have been the custom of the Mucclasse Indians? "When a town celebrates the busk," says he, "having previously provided themselves with new clothes, new pots, pans, and other household utensils and furniture, they collect all their worn out clothes and other despicable things, sweep and cleanse28 their houses, squares, and the whole town of their filth509, which with all the remaining grain and other old provisions they cast together into one common heap, and consume it with fire. After having taken medicine, and fasted for three days, all the fire in the town is extinguished. During this fast they abstain510 from the gratification of every appetite and passion whatever. A general amnesty is proclaimed; all malefactors may return to their town."
"On the fourth morning, the high priest, by rubbing dry wood together, produces new fire in the public square, from whence every habitation in the town is supplied with the new and pure flame."
They then feast on the new corn and fruits, and dance and sing for three days, "and the four following days they receive visits and rejoice with their friends from neighboring towns who have in like manner purified and prepared themselves."
The Mexicans also practised a similar purification at the end of every fifty-two years, in the belief that it was time for the world to come to an end.
I have scarcely heard of a truer sacrament, that is, as the dictionary defines it, "outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace," than this, and I have no doubt that they were originally inspired directly from Heaven to do thus, though they have no Biblical record of the revelation.
For more than five years I maintained myself thus solely by the labor of my hands, and I found that, by working about six weeks in a year, I could meet all the expenses of living. The whole of my winters, as well as most of my summers, I had free and clear for study. I have thoroughly tried school-keeping, and found that my expenses were in proportion, or rather out of proportion, to my income, for I was obliged to dress and train, not to say think and believe, accordingly, and I lost my time into the bargain. As I did not teach for the good of my fellow-men, but simply for a livelihood, this was a failure. I have tried trade but I found that it would take ten years to get under way in that, and that then I should probably be on my way to the devil. I was actually afraid that I might by that time be doing what is called a good business. When formerly I was looking about to see what I could do for a living, some sad experience in conforming to the wishes of friends being fresh in my mind to tax my ingenuity511, I thought often and seriously of picking huckleberries; that surely I could do, and its small profits might suffice -- for my greatest skill has been to want but little -- so little capital it required, so little distraction512 from my wonted moods, I foolishly thought. While my acquaintances went unhesitatingly into trade or the professions, I contemplated this occupation as most like theirs; ranging the hills all summer to pick the berries which came in my way, and thereafter carelessly dispose of them; so, to keep the flocks of Admetus. I also dreamed that I might gather the wild herbs, or carry evergreens513 to such villagers as loved to be reminded of the woods, even to the city, by hay-cart loads. But I have since learned that trade curses everything it handles; and though you trade in messages from heaven, the whole curse of trade attaches to the business.
As I preferred some things to others, and especially valued my freedom, as I could fare hard and yet succeed well, I did not wish to spend my time in earning rich carpets or other fine furniture, or delicate cookery, or a house in the Grecian or the Gothic style just yet. If there are any to whom it is no interruption to acquire these things, and who know how to use them when acquired, I relinquish514 to them the pursuit. Some are "industrious," and appear to love labor for its own sake, or perhaps because it keeps them out of worse mischief515; to such I have at present nothing to say. Those who would not know what to do with more leisure than they now enjoy, I might advise to work twice as hard as they do -- work till they pay for themselves, and get their free papers. For myself I found that the occupation of a day-laborer was the most independent of any, especially as it required only thirty or forty days in a year to support one. The laborer's day ends with the going down of the sun, and he is then free to devote himself to his chosen pursuit, independent of his labor; but his employer, who speculates from month to month, has no respite516 from one end of the year to the other.
In short, I am convinced, both by faith and experience, that to maintain one's self on this earth is not a hardship but a pastime, if we will live simply and wisely; as the pursuits of the simpler nations are still the sports of the more artificial. It is not necessary that a man should earn his living by the sweat of his brow, unless he sweats easier than I do.
One young man of my acquaintance, who has inherited some acres, told me that he thought he should live as I did, if he had the means. I would not have any one adopt my mode of living on any account; for, beside that before he has fairly learned it I may have found out another for myself, I desire that there may be as many different persons in the world as possible; but I would have each one be very careful to find out and pursue his own way, and not his father's or his mother's or his neighbor's instead. The youth may build or plant or sail, only let him not be hindered from doing that which he tells me he would like to do. It is by a mathematical point only that we are wise, as the sailor or the fugitive517 slave keeps the polestar in his eye; but that is sufficient guidance for all our life. We may not arrive at our port within a calculable period, but we would preserve the true course.
Undoubtedly, in this case, what is true for one is truer still for a thousand, as a large house is not proportionally more expensive than a small one, since one roof may cover, one cellar underlie518, and one wall separate several apartments. But for my part, I preferred the solitary dwelling. Moreover, it will commonly be cheaper to build the whole yourself than to convince another of the advantage of the common wall; and when you have done this, the common partition, to be much cheaper, must be a thin one, and that other may prove a bad neighbor, and also not keep his side in repair. The only co-operation which is commonly possible is exceedingly partial and superficial; and what little true co-operation there is, is as if it were not, being a harmony inaudible to men. If a man has faith, he will co-operate with equal faith everywhere; if he has not faith, he will continue to live like the rest of the world, whatever company he is joined to. To co-operate in the highest as well as the lowest sense, means to get our living together. I heard it proposed lately that two young men should travel together over the world, the one without money, earning his means as he went, before the mast and behind the plow, the other carrying a bill of exchange in his pocket. It was easy to see that they could not long be companions or co-operate, since one would not operate at all. They would part at the first interesting crisis in their adventures. Above all, as I have implied, the man who goes alone can start today; but he who travels with another must wait till that other is ready, and it may be a long time before they get off.
But all this is very selfish, I have heard some of my townsmen say. I confess that I have hitherto indulged very little in philanthropic enterprises. I have made some sacrifices to a sense of duty, and among others have sacrificed this pleasure also. There are those who have used all their arts to persuade me to undertake the support of some poor family in the town; and if I had nothing to do -- for the devil finds employment for the idle -- I might try my hand at some such pastime as that. However, when I have thought to indulge myself in this respect, and lay their Heaven under an obligation by maintaining certain poor persons in all respects as comfortably as I maintain myself, and have even ventured so far as to make them the offer, they have one and all unhesitatingly preferred to remain poor. While my townsmen and women are devoted in so many ways to the good of their fellows, I trust that one at least may be spared to other and less humane519 pursuits. You must have a genius for charity as well as for anything else. As for Doing-good, that is one of the professions which are full. Moreover, I have tried it fairly, and, strange as it may seem, am satisfied that it does not agree with my constitution. Probably I should not consciously and deliberately forsake520 my particular calling to do the good which society demands of me, to save the universe from annihilation; and I believe that a like but infinitely greater steadfastness521 elsewhere is all that now preserves it. But I would not stand between any man and his genius; and to him who does this work, which I decline, with his whole heart and soul and life, I would say, Persevere522, even if the world call it doing evil, as it is most likely they will.
I am far from supposing that my case is a peculiar398 one; no doubt many of my readers would make a similar defence. At doing something -- I will not engage that my neighbors shall pronounce it good -- I do not hesitate to say that I should be a capital fellow to hire; but what that is, it is for my employer to find out. What good I do, in the common sense of that word, must be aside from my main path, and for the most part wholly unintended. Men say, practically, Begin where you are and such as you are, without aiming mainly to become of more worth, and with kindness aforethought go about doing good. If I were to preach at all in this strain, I should say rather, Set about being good. As if the sun should stop when he had kindled523 his fires up to the splendor524 of a moon or a star of the sixth magnitude, and go about like a Robin525 Goodfellow, peeping in at every cottage window, inspiring lunatics, and tainting526 meats, and making darkness visible, instead of steadily527 increasing his genial528 heat and beneficence till he is of such brightness that no mortal can look him in the face, and then, and in the meanwhile too, going about the world in his own orbit, doing it good, or rather, as a truer philosophy has discovered, the world going about him getting good. When Phaeton, wishing to prove his heavenly birth by his beneficence, had the sun's chariot but one day, and drove out of the beaten track, he burned several blocks of houses in the lower streets of heaven, and scorched529 the surface of the earth, and dried up every spring, and made the great desert of Sahara, till at length Jupiter hurled530 him headlong to the earth with a thunderbolt, and the sun, through grief at his death, did not shine for a year.
There is no odor so bad as that which arises from goodness tainted531. It is human, it is divine, carrion532. If I knew for a certainty that a man was coming to my house with the conscious design of doing me good, I should run for my life, as from that dry and parching533 wind of the African deserts called the simoom, which fills the mouth and nose and ears and eyes with dust till you are suffocated534, for fear that I should get some of his good done to me -- some of its virus mingled535 with my blood. No -- in this case I would rather suffer evil the natural way. A man is not a good man to me because he will feed me if I should be starving, or warm me if I should be freezing, or pull me out of a ditch if I should ever fall into one. I can find you a Newfoundland dog that will do as much. Philanthropy is not love for one's fellow-man in the broadest sense. Howard was no doubt an exceedingly kind and worthy man in his way, and has his reward; but, comparatively speaking, what are a hundred Howards to us, if their philanthropy do not help us in our best estate, when we are most worthy to be helped? I never heard of a philanthropic meeting in which it was sincerely proposed to do any good to me, or the like of me.
The Jesuits were quite balked536 by those Indians who, being burned at the stake, suggested new modes of torture to their tormentors. Being superior to physical suffering, it sometimes chanced that they were superior to any consolation537 which the missionaries538 could offer; and the law to do as you would be done by fell with less persuasiveness539 on the ears of those who, for their part, did not care how they were done by, who loved their enemies after a new fashion, and came very near freely forgiving them all they did.
Be sure that you give the poor the aid they most need, though it be your example which leaves them far behind. If you give money, spend yourself with it, and do not merely abandon it to them. We make curious mistakes sometimes. Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross. It is partly his taste, and not merely his misfortune. If you give him money, he will perhaps buy more rags with it. I was wont to pity the clumsy Irish laborers who cut ice on the pond, in such mean and ragged clothes, while I shivered in my more tidy and somewhat more fashionable garments, till, one bitter cold day, one who had slipped into the water came to my house to warm him, and I saw him strip off three pairs of pants and two pairs of stockings ere he got down to the skin, though they were dirty and ragged enough, it is true, and that he could afford to refuse the extra garments which I offered him, he had so many intra ones. This ducking was the very thing he needed. Then I began to pity myself, and I saw that it would be a greater charity to bestow on me a flannel540 shirt than a whole slop-shop on him. There are a thousand hacking541 at the branches of evil to one who is striking at the root, and it may be that he who bestows542 the largest amount of time and money on the needy543 is doing the most by his mode of life to produce that misery which he strives in vain to relieve. It is the pious544 slave-breeder devoting the proceeds of every tenth slave to buy a Sunday's liberty for the rest. Some show their kindness to the poor by employing them in their kitchens. Would they not be kinder if they employed themselves there? You boast of spending a tenth part of your income in charity; maybe you should spend the nine tenths so, and done with it. Society recovers only a tenth part of the property then. Is this owing to the generosity of him in whose possession it is found, or to the remissness545 of the officers of justice?
Philanthropy is almost the only virtue which is sufficiently appreciated by mankind. Nay, it is greatly overrated; and it is our selfishness which overrates it. A robust poor man, one sunny day here in Concord, praised a fellow-townsman to me, because, as he said, he was kind to the poor; meaning himself. The kind uncles and aunts of the race are more esteemed546 than its true spiritual fathers and mothers. I once heard a reverend lecturer on England, a man of learning and intelligence, after enumerating547 her scientific, literary, and political worthies548, Shakespeare, Bacon, Cromwell, Milton, Newton, and others, speak next of her Christian328 heroes, whom, as if his profession required it of him, he elevated to a place far above all the rest, as the greatest of the great. They were Penn, Howard, and Mrs. Fry. Every one must feel the falsehood and cant of this. The last were not England's best men and women; only, perhaps, her best philanthropists.
I would not subtract anything from the praise that is due to philanthropy, but merely demand justice for all who by their lives and works are a blessing to mankind. I do not value chiefly a man's uprightness and benevolence549, which are, as it were, his stem and leaves. Those plants of whose greenness withered we make herb tea for the sick serve but a humble use, and are most employed by quacks550. I want the flower and fruit of a man; that some fragrance be wafted551 over from him to me, and some ripeness flavor our intercourse552. His goodness must not be a partial and transitory act, but a constant superfluity, which costs him nothing and of which he is unconscious. This is a charity that hides a multitude of sins. The philanthropist too often surrounds mankind with the remembrance of his own castoff griefs as an atmosphere, and calls it sympathy. We should impart our courage, and not our despair, our health and ease, and not our disease, and take care that this does not spread by contagion553. From what southern plains comes up the voice of wailing554? Under what latitudes reside the heathen to whom we would send light? Who is that intemperate555 and brutal556 man whom we would redeem557? If anything ail19 a man, so that he does not perform his functions, if he have a pain in his bowels558 even -- for that is the seat of sympathy -- he forthwith sets about reforming -- the world. Being a microcosm himself, he discovers -- and it is a true discovery, and he is the man to make it -- that the world has been eating green apples; to his eyes, in fact, the globe itself is a great green apple, which there is danger awful to think of that the children of men will nibble559 before it is ripe; and straightway his drastic philanthropy seeks out the Esquimau and the Patagonian, and embraces the populous560 Indian and Chinese villages; and thus, by a few years of philanthropic activity, the powers in the meanwhile using him for their own ends, no doubt, he cures himself of his dyspepsia, the globe acquires a faint blush on one or both of its cheeks, as if it were beginning to be ripe, and life loses its crudity561 and is once more sweet and wholesome to live. I never dreamed of any enormity greater than I have committed. I never knew, and never shall know, a worse man than myself.
I believe that what so saddens the reformer is not his sympathy with his fellows in distress562, but, though he be the holiest son of God, is his private ail. Let this be righted, let the spring come to him, the morning rise over his couch, and he will forsake his generous companions without apology. My excuse for not lecturing against the use of tobacco is, that I never chewed it, that is a penalty which reformed tobacco-chewers have to pay; though there are things enough I have chewed which I could lecture against. If you should ever be betrayed into any of these philanthropies, do not let your left hand know what your right hand does, for it is not worth knowing. Rescue the drowning and tie your shoestrings. Take your time, and set about some free labor.
Our manners have been corrupted563 by communication with the saints. Our hymn-books resound564 with a melodious565 cursing of God and enduring Him forever. One would say that even the prophets and redeemers had rather consoled the fears than confirmed the hopes of man. There is nowhere recorded a simple and irrepressible satisfaction with the gift of life, any memorable praise of God. All health and success does me good, however far off and withdrawn566 it may appear; all disease and failure helps to make me sad and does me evil, however much sympathy it may have with me or I with it. If, then, we would indeed restore mankind by truly Indian, botanic, magnetic, or natural means, let us first be as simple and well as Nature ourselves, dispel567 the clouds which hang over our own brows, and take up a little life into our pores. Do not stay to be an overseer of the poor, but endeavor to become one of the worthies of the world.
I read in the Gulistan, or Flower Garden, of Sheik Sadi of Shiraz, that "they asked a wise man, saying: Of the many celebrated trees which the Most High God has created lofty and umbrageous568, they call none azad, or free, excepting the cypress569, which bears no fruit; what mystery is there in this? He replied, Each has its appropriate produce, and appointed season, during the continuance of which it is fresh and blooming, and during their absence dry and withered; to neither of which states is the cypress exposed, being always flourishing; and of this nature are the azads, or religious independents. -- Fix not thy heart on that which is transitory; for the Dijlah, or Tigris, will continue to flow through Bagdad after the race of caliphs is extinct: if thy hand has plenty, be liberal as the date tree; but if it affords nothing to give away, be an azad, or free man, like the cypress."
COMPLEMENTAL570 VERSES
The Pretensions571 of Poverty
Thou dost presume too much, poor needy wretch572,
To claim a station in the firmament573
Because thy humble cottage, or thy tub,
Nurses some lazy or pedantic574 virtue
In the cheap sunshine or by shady springs,
With roots and pot-herbs; where thy right hand,
Tearing those humane passions from the mind,
Upon whose stocks fair blooming virtues575 flourish,
Degradeth nature, and benumbeth sense,
And, Gorgon-like, turns active men to stone.
We not require the dull society
Of your necessitated576 temperance,
Or that unnatural153 stupidity
That knows nor joy nor sorrow; nor your forc'd
Falsely exalted577 passive fortitude578
Above the active. This low abject579 brood,
That fix their seats in mediocrity,
Become your servile minds; but we advance
Such virtues only as admit excess,
Brave, bounteous580 acts, regal magnificence,
All-seeing prudence, magnanimity
That knows no bound, and that heroic virtue
For which antiquity581 hath left no name,
But patterns only, such as Hercules,
Achilles, Theseus. Back to thy loath'd cell;
And when thou seest the new enlightened sphere,
Study to know but what those worthies were.
T. CAREW
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1
concord
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| n.和谐；协调 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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sojourner
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| n.旅居者，寄居者 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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obtrude
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| v.闯入；侵入；打扰 | |
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inquiries
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| n.调查( inquiry的名词复数 )；疑问；探究；打听 | |
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7
pertinent
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| adj.恰当的；贴切的；中肯的；有关的；相干的 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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10
dent
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| n.凹痕，凹坑；初步进展 | |
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rust
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| n.锈；v.生锈；(脑子)衰退 | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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penance
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| n.（赎罪的）惩罪 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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caterpillar
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| n.毛虫，蝴蝶的幼虫 | |
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caterpillars
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| n.毛虫( caterpillar的名词复数 )；履带 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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ail
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| v.生病，折磨，苦恼 | |
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labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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slew
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| v.（使）旋转；n.大量，许多 | |
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condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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smothered
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| （使）窒息， （使）透不过气( smother的过去式和过去分词 )； 覆盖； 忍住； 抑制 | |
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moth
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| n.蛾，蛀虫 | |
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cleansed
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| 弄干净，清洗( cleanse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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cleanse
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| vt.使清洁，使纯洁，清洗 | |
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mowing
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| n.割草，一次收割量，牧草地v.刈，割( mow的现在分词 ) | |
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encumbrances
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| n.负担( encumbrance的名词复数 )；累赘；妨碍；阻碍 | |
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encumbrance
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| n.妨碍物，累赘 | |
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subdue
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| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
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plowed
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| v.耕( plow的过去式和过去分词 )；犁耕；费力穿过 | |
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plow
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| n.犁，耕地，犁过的地；v.犁，费力地前进[英]plough | |
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corrupt
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| v.贿赂，收买；adj.腐败的，贪污的 | |
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sonorous
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| adj.响亮的，回响的；adv.圆润低沉地；感人地；n.感人，堂皇 | |
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stony
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| adj.石头的，多石头的，冷酷的，无情的 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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oracle
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| n.神谕，神谕处，预言 | |
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superfluously
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| 过分地； 过剩地 | |
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superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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42
toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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laboring
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| n.劳动，操劳v.努力争取(for)( labor的现在分词 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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44
manliest
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| manly（有男子气概的）的最高级形式 | |
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45
depreciated
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| v.贬值，跌价，减价( depreciate的过去式和过去分词 )；贬低，蔑视，轻视 | |
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gratuitously
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| 平白 | |
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gasping
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| adj. 气喘的, 痉挛的 动词gasp的现在分词 | |
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creditors
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| n.债权人，债主( creditor的名词复数 ) | |
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sneaking
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| a.秘密的，不公开的 | |
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50
whetted
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| v.（在石头上）磨（刀、斧等）( whet的过去式和过去分词 )；引起，刺激（食欲、欲望、兴趣等） | |
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51
slough
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| v.蜕皮，脱落，抛弃 | |
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52
brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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53
promising
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| adj.有希望的，有前途的 | |
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54
insolvent
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| adj.破产的，无偿还能力的 | |
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55
curry
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| n.咖哩粉，咖哩饭菜；v.用咖哩粉调味，用马栉梳，制革 | |
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56
offenses
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| n.进攻( offense的名词复数 )；（球队的）前锋；进攻方法；攻势 | |
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57
dilating
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| v.（使某物）扩大，膨胀，张大( dilate的现在分词 ) | |
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vapor
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| n.蒸汽，雾气 | |
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59
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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frivolous
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| adj.轻薄的；轻率的 | |
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oversee
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| vt.监督，管理 | |
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fodder
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| n.草料；炮灰 | |
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shipping
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| n.船运（发货，运输，乘船） | |
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squire
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| n.护卫, 侍从, 乡绅 | |
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65
cowers
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| v.畏缩，抖缩( cower的第三人称单数 ) | |
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66
sneaks
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| abbr.sneakers (tennis shoes) 胶底运动鞋（网球鞋）v.潜行( sneak的第三人称单数 )；偷偷溜走；（儿童向成人）打小报告；告状 | |
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67
vaguely
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| adv.含糊地，暖昧地 | |
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68
tyrant
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| n.暴君，专制的君主，残暴的人 | |
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eternity
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| n.不朽，来世；永恒，无穷 | |
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70
minks
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| n.水貂( mink的名词复数 )；水貂皮 | |
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71
muskrat
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| n.麝香鼠 | |
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72
muskrats
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| n.麝鼠（产于北美，毛皮珍贵）( muskrat的名词复数 ) | |
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73
stereotyped
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| adj.(指形象、思想、人物等)模式化的 | |
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74
concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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75
deliberately
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| adv.审慎地；蓄意地；故意地 | |
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76
fertilizing
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| v.施肥( fertilize的现在分词 ) | |
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77
qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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78
instructor
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| n.指导者，教员，教练 | |
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79
miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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80
belies
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| v.掩饰( belie的第三人称单数 )；证明（或显示）…为虚假；辜负；就…扯谎 | |
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81
syllable
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| n.音节；vt.分音节 | |
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82
mentors
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| n.（无经验之人的）有经验可信赖的顾问( mentor的名词复数 )v.（无经验之人的）有经验可信赖的顾问( mentor的第三人称单数 ) | |
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83
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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84
lumbering
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| n.采伐林木 | |
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85
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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86
predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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87
ordinances
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| n.条例，法令( ordinance的名词复数 ) | |
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88
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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89
acorns
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| n.橡子，栎实( acorn的名词复数 ) | |
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90
trespass
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| n./v.侵犯，闯入私人领地 | |
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91
ails
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| v.生病( ail的第三人称单数 )；感到不舒服；处境困难；境况不佳 | |
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92
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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93
tedium
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| n.单调；烦闷 | |
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94
ennui
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| n.怠倦，无聊 | |
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95
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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96
precedents
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|
| 引用单元； 范例( precedent的名词复数 )； 先前出现的事例； 前例； 先例 | |
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97
afflicted
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| 使受痛苦，折磨( afflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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98
undone
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| a.未做完的，未完成的 | |
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99
ripens
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| v.成熟，使熟( ripen的第三人称单数 ) | |
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100
apexes
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| n.顶( apex的名词复数 )；顶峰；脉尖；尖端 | |
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101
mansions
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| n.宅第，公馆，大厦( mansion的名词复数 ) | |
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102
mansion
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| n.大厦，大楼；宅第 | |
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103
contemplating
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| 深思，细想，仔细考虑( contemplate的现在分词 )； 注视，凝视； 考虑接受（发生某事的可能性）； 深思熟虑，沉思，苦思冥想 | |
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104
prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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105
mythology
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| n.神话，神话学，神话集 | |
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106
repent
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| v.悔悟，悔改，忏悔，后悔 | |
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107
demon
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| n.魔鬼，恶魔 | |
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108
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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109
irresistible
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| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
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110
stranded
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| a.搁浅的，进退两难的 | |
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111
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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112
vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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113
waive
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| vt.放弃，不坚持(规定、要求、权力等) | |
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114
bestow
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| v.把…赠与，把…授予；花费 | |
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115
incessant
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| adj.不停的，连续的 | |
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116
incurable
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| adj.不能医治的，不能矫正的，无救的；n.不治的病人，无救的人 | |
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117
vigilant
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| adj.警觉的，警戒的，警惕的 | |
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118
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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119
unwillingly
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| adv.不情愿地 | |
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120
uncertainties
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| 无把握( uncertainty的名词复数 )； 不确定； 变化不定； 无把握、不确定的事物 | |
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121
taint
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| n.污点；感染；腐坏；v.使感染；污染 | |
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122
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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123
reverencing
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| v.尊敬，崇敬( reverence的现在分词 )；敬礼 | |
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124
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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125
radii
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| n.半径；半径（距离）( radius的名词复数 )；用半径度量的圆形面积；半径范围；桡骨 | |
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126
contemplate
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|
| vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视 | |
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127
primitive
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|
| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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128
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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129
exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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130
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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131
savageness
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| 天然，野蛮 | |
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132
palatable
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| adj.可口的，美味的；惬意的 | |
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133
brute
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| n.野兽，兽性 | |
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134
accurately
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|
| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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135
legitimately
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|
| ad.合法地；正当地，合理地 | |
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136
naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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137
savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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138
perspiration
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| n.汗水；出汗 | |
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139
impunity
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|
| n.(惩罚、损失、伤害等的)免除 | |
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140
hardiness
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|
| n.耐劳性，强壮；勇气，胆子 | |
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141
combustion
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| n.燃烧；氧化；骚动 | |
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142
bust
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| vt.打破；vi.爆裂；n.半身像；胸部 | |
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143
draught
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|
| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
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144
mole
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|
| n.胎块；痣；克分子 | |
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145
burrow
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|
| vt.挖掘(洞穴)；钻进；vi.挖洞；翻寻；n.地洞 | |
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146
wont
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|
| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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147
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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148
implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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149
axe
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|
| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
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150
stationery
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|
| n.文具；(配套的)信笺信封 | |
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151
luxuriously
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|
| adv.奢侈地，豪华地 | |
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152
luxurious
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|
| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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153
unnatural
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|
| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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154
unnaturally
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| adv.违反习俗地；不自然地；勉强地；不近人情地 | |
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155
hindrances
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|
| 阻碍者( hindrance的名词复数 )； 障碍物； 受到妨碍的状态 | |
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156
elevation
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|
| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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157
benefactors
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| n.捐助者，施主( benefactor的名词复数 )；恩人 | |
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158
impartial
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|
| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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159
profess
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| v.声称，冒称，以...为业，正式接受入教，表明信仰 | |
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160
dictates
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| n.命令，规定，要求( dictate的名词复数 )v.大声讲或读( dictate的第三人称单数 )；口授；支配；摆布 | |
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161
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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162
manly
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| adj.有男子气概的；adv.男子般地，果断地 | |
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163
conformity
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| n.一致，遵从，顺从 | |
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164
progenitors
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| n.祖先( progenitor的名词复数 )；先驱；前辈；原本 | |
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165
degenerate
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| v.退步，堕落；adj.退步的，堕落的；n.堕落者 | |
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166
enervates
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| v.使衰弱，使失去活力( enervate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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167
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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168
valiant
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| adj.勇敢的，英勇的；n.勇士，勇敢的人 | |
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169
lavishly
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| adv.慷慨地，大方地 | |
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170
impoverishing
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| v.使（某人）贫穷( impoverish的现在分词 )；使（某物）贫瘠或恶化 | |
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171
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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172
numb
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| adj.麻木的，失去感觉的；v.使麻木 | |
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173
impoverished
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|
| adj.穷困的，无力的，用尽了的v.使（某人）贫穷( impoverish的过去式和过去分词 )；使（某物）贫瘠或恶化 | |
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174
dross
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| n.渣滓；无用之物 | |
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175
fetters
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| n.脚镣( fetter的名词复数 )；束缚v.给…上脚镣，束缚( fetter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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176
notch
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| n.(V字形)槽口，缺口，等级 | |
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177
twilight
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| n.暮光，黄昏；暮年，晚期，衰落时期 | |
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178
observatory
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| n.天文台，气象台，瞭望台，观测台 | |
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179
inspector
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| n.检查员，监察员，视察员 | |
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180
herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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181
herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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182
withered
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|
| adj. 枯萎的，干瘪的，（人身体的部分器官）因病萎缩的或未发育良好的 动词wither的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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183
sinecure
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| n.闲差事，挂名职务 | |
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184
audited
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| v.审计，查账( audit的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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185
industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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186
texture
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| n.(织物)质地；(材料)构造；结构；肌理 | |
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187
transact
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| v.处理；做交易；谈判 | |
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188
celestial
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| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
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189
fixture
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| n.固定设备；预定日期；比赛时间；定期存款 | |
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190
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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191
granite
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| adj.花岗岩，花岗石 | |
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192
jersey
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| n.运动衫 | |
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193
sweeping
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| adj.范围广大的，一扫无遗的 | |
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194
despatch
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| n./v.(dispatch)派遣；发送；n.急件；新闻报道 | |
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195
exorbitant
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| adj.过分的；过度的 | |
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196
prospects
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| n.希望，前途(恒为复数) | |
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197
buoys
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| n.浮标( buoy的名词复数 )；航标；救生圈；救生衣v.使浮起( buoy的第三人称单数 )；支持；为…设浮标；振奋…的精神 | |
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198
ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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199
pier
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| n.码头；桥墩，桥柱；[建]窗间壁，支柱 | |
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200
untold
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| adj.数不清的，无数的 | |
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201
faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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202
tare
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| n.皮重；v.量皮重 | |
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203
gauging
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| n.测量[试]，测定，计量v.（用仪器）测量( gauge的现在分词 )；估计；计量；划分 | |
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204
divulge
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| v.泄漏(秘密等)；宣布，公布 | |
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205
marshes
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| n.沼泽，湿地( marsh的名词复数 ) | |
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206
conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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207
undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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208
procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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209
recollect
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| v.回忆，想起，记起，忆起，记得 | |
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210
secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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211
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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212
majesties
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| n.雄伟( majesty的名词复数 )；庄严；陛下；王权 | |
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213
improvidence
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| n.目光短浅 | |
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214
loon
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| n.狂人 | |
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215
salute
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| vi.行礼，致意，问候，放礼炮；vt.向…致意，迎接，赞扬；n.招呼，敬礼，礼炮 | |
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216
premises
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| n.建筑物，房屋 | |
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217
divested
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| v.剥夺( divest的过去式和过去分词 )；脱去（衣服）；2。从…取去…；1。（给某人）脱衣服 | |
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218
adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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219
manifestation
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| n.表现形式；表明；现象 | |
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220
missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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221
legislative
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| n.立法机构，立法权；adj.立法的，有立法权的 | |
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222
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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223
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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224
ragged
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| adj.衣衫褴褛的，粗糙的，刺耳的 | |
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225
fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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226
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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227
cuticle
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| n.表皮 | |
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228
inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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229
epidermis
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| n.表皮 | |
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230
cellular
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| adj.移动的；细胞的，由细胞组成的 | |
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231
integument
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| n.皮肤 | |
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232
nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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233
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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234
impersonal
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| adj.无个人感情的，与个人无关的，非人称的 | |
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235
consanguinity
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| n.血缘；亲族 | |
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236
peg
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| n.木栓，木钉；vt.用木钉钉，用短桩固定 | |
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237
dressing
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| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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238
beholding
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| v.看，注视( behold的现在分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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239
behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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240
grotesque
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| adj.怪诞的，丑陋的；n.怪诞的图案，怪人（物） | |
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241
consecrate
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| v.使圣化，奉…为神圣；尊崇；奉献 | |
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242
squinting
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| 斜视( squint的现在分词 )； 眯着眼睛； 瞟； 从小孔或缝隙里看 | |
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243
lapse
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| n.过失，流逝，失效，抛弃信仰，间隔；vi.堕落，停止，失效，流逝；vt.使失效 | |
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244
tattooing
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| n.刺字，文身v.刺青，文身( tattoo的现在分词 )；连续有节奏地敲击；作连续有节奏的敲击 | |
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245
hideous
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| adj.丑陋的，可憎的，可怕的，恐怖的 | |
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246
hardier
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| 能吃苦耐劳的，坚强的( hardy的比较级 )； （植物等）耐寒的 | |
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247
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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248
robust
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| adj.强壮的，强健的，粗野的，需要体力的，浓的 | |
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249
serene
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| adj. 安详的，宁静的，平静的 | |
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250
fable
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| n.寓言；童话；神话 | |
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251
bower
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| n.凉亭，树荫下凉快之处；闺房；v.荫蔽 | |
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252
infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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253
yearning
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| a.渴望的；向往的；怀念的 | |
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254
boughs
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| 大树枝( bough的名词复数 ) | |
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255
linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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256
shingle
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| n.木瓦板；小招牌(尤指医生或律师挂的营业招牌)；v.用木瓦板盖（屋顶）；把（女子头发）剪短 | |
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257
shingles
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| n.带状疱疹；（布满海边的）小圆石( shingle的名词复数 )；屋顶板；木瓦（板）；墙面板 | |
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258
hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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259
obstruction
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| n.阻塞，堵塞；障碍物 | |
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260
innocence
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| n.无罪；天真；无害 | |
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261
behooves
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| n.利益，好处( behoof的名词复数 )v.适宜( behoove的第三人称单数 ) | |
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262
labyrinth
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| n.迷宫；难解的事物；迷路 | |
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263
vexed
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| adj.争论不休的；（指问题等）棘手的；争论不休的问题；烦恼的v.使烦恼( vex的过去式和过去分词 )；使苦恼；使生气；详细讨论 | |
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264
callous
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| adj.无情的，冷淡的，硬结的，起老茧的 | |
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265
laborers
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| n.体力劳动者，工人( laborer的名词复数 )；（熟练工人的）辅助工 | |
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266
auger
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| n.螺丝钻，钻孔机 | |
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267
harassed
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| adj. 疲倦的，厌烦的 动词harass的过去式和过去分词 | |
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268
levity
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| n.轻率，轻浮，不稳定，多变 | |
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269
hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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270
superintendent
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| n.监督人，主管，总监；(英国)警务长 | |
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271
neatly
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| adv.整洁地，干净地，灵巧地，熟练地 | |
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272
flakes
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| 小薄片( flake的名词复数 )； （尤指）碎片； 雪花； 古怪的人 | |
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273
lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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274
lodge
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| v.临时住宿，寄宿，寄存，容纳；n.传达室，小旅馆 | |
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275
embroidered
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| adj．绣花的 | |
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276
utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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277
abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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278
spacious
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| adj.广阔的，宽敞的 | |
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279
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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280
commodious
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| adj.宽敞的；使用方便的 | |
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281
dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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282
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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283
encumbered
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| v.妨碍，阻碍，拖累( encumber的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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284
pecuniary
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| adj.金钱的；金钱上的 | |
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285
toiling
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| 长时间或辛苦地工作( toil的现在分词 )； 艰难缓慢地移动，跋涉 | |
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286
outweigh
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| vt.比...更重，...更重要 | |
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287
pertinently
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| 适切地 | |
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288
inconvenient
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| adj.不方便的，令人感到麻烦的 | |
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289
infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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290
bankruptcy
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| n.破产；无偿付能力 | |
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291
repudiation
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| n.拒绝；否认；断绝关系；抛弃 | |
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292
vaults
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| n.拱顶( vault的名词复数 )；地下室；撑物跳高；墓穴 | |
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293
plank
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| n.板条，木板，政策要点，政纲条目 | |
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294
eclat
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| n.显赫之成功，荣誉 | |
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295
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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296
joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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297
joints
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| 接头( joint的名词复数 )； 关节； 公共场所（尤指价格低廉的饮食和娱乐场所） （非正式）； 一块烤肉 （英式英语） | |
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298
livelihood
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| n.生计，谋生之道 | |
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299
shoestrings
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| n.以极少的钱( shoestring的名词复数 ) | |
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300
consummate
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| adj.完美的；v.成婚；使完美 [反]baffle | |
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301
valid
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| adj.有确实根据的；有效的；正当的，合法的 | |
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302
imprisoned
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| 下狱，监禁( imprison的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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303
scurvy
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| adj.下流的，卑鄙的，无礼的；n.坏血病 | |
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304
outskirts
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| n.郊外，郊区 | |
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305
worthier
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| 应得某事物( worthy的比较级 )； 值得做某事； 可尊敬的； 有（某人或事物）的典型特征 | |
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306
indigence
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| n.贫穷 | |
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307
myriads
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| n.无数，极大数量( myriad的名词复数 ) | |
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308
shanties
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| n.简陋的小木屋( shanty的名词复数 )；铁皮棚屋；船工号子；船歌 | |
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309
permanently
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| adv.永恒地，永久地，固定不变地 | |
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310
misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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311
denomination
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| n.命名，取名，(度量衡、货币等的)单位 | |
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312
staple
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| n.主要产物，常用品，主要要素，原料，订书钉，钩环；adj.主要的，重要的；vt.分类 | |
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313
precept
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| n.戒律；格言 | |
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314
chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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315
retinue
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| n.侍从；随员 | |
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316
cluttered
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| v.杂物，零乱的东西零乱vt.( clutter的过去式和过去分词 )；乱糟糟地堆满，把…弄得很乱；（以…） 塞满… | |
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317
defiled
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| v.玷污( defile的过去式和过去分词 )；污染；弄脏；纵列行进 | |
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318
aurora
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| n.极光 | |
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319
limestone
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| n.石灰石 | |
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320
diligently
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| ad.industriously;carefully | |
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321
attaining
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的现在分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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322
divans
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| n.（可作床用的）矮沙发( divan的名词复数 )；（波斯或其他东方诗人的）诗集 | |
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323
pumpkin
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| n.南瓜 | |
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324
velvet
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| n.丝绒，天鹅绒；adj.丝绒制的，柔软的 | |
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325
malaria
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| n.疟疾 | |
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326
contemplated
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|
| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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327
housekeeper
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| n.管理家务的主妇，女管家 | |
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328
Christian
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|
| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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329
enjoyment
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|
| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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330
adorn
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|
| vt.使美化，装饰 | |
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331
tempted
|
|
| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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332
proprietor
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|
| n.所有人；业主；经营者 | |
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333
bolsters
|
|
| n.长枕( bolster的名词复数 )；垫子；衬垫；支持物v.支持( bolster的第三人称单数 )；支撑；给予必要的支持；援助 | |
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334
ornamental
|
|
| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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335
ornament
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|
| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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336
blessing
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|
| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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337
forth
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|
| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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338
farmhouses
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|
| n.农舍，农场的主要住房( farmhouse的名词复数 ) | |
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339
prudence
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|
| n.谨慎，精明，节俭 | |
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340
deterred
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|
| v.阻止，制止( deter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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341
forefathers
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|
| n.祖先，先人；祖先，祖宗( forefather的名词复数 )；列祖列宗；前人 | |
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342
tenement
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|
| n.公寓；房屋 | |
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343
alas
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|
| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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344
saturated
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| a.饱和的，充满的 | |
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345
hazy
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|
| adj.有薄雾的，朦胧的；不肯定的，模糊的 | |
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346
lark
|
|
| n.云雀，百灵鸟；n.嬉戏，玩笑；vi.嬉戏 | |
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347
thaw
|
|
| v.（使）融化，（使）变得友善；n.融化，缓和 | |
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348
thawing
|
|
| n.熔化，融化v.（气候）解冻( thaw的现在分词 )；（态度、感情等）缓和；（冰、雪及冷冻食物）溶化；软化 | |
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349
torpid
|
|
| adj.麻痹的，麻木的，迟钝的 | |
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350
swell
|
|
| vi.膨胀，肿胀；增长，增强 | |
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351
apparently
|
|
| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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352
previously
|
|
| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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353
inflexible
|
|
| adj.不可改变的，不受影响的，不屈服的 | |
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354
hewing
|
|
| v.（用斧、刀等）砍、劈( hew的现在分词 )；砍成；劈出；开辟 | |
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355
hewed
|
|
| v.（用斧、刀等）砍、劈( hew的过去式和过去分词 )；砍成；劈出；开辟 | |
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356
awed
|
|
| adj.充满敬畏的，表示敬畏的v.使敬畏，使惊惧( awe的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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357
stump
|
|
| n.残株，烟蒂，讲演台；v.砍断，蹒跚而走 | |
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358
fragrance
|
|
| n.芬芳，香味，香气 | |
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359
foe
|
|
| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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360
shanty
|
|
| n.小屋，棚屋；船工号子 | |
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361
uncommonly
|
|
| adv. 稀罕(极，非常) | |
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362
warped
|
|
| adj.反常的；乖戾的；（变）弯曲的；变形的v.弄弯，变歪( warp的过去式和过去分词 )；使（行为等）不合情理，使乖戾， | |
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363
warp
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|
| vt.弄歪，使翘曲，使不正常，歪曲，使有偏见 | |
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364
brittle
|
|
| adj.易碎的；脆弱的；冷淡的；(声音)尖利的 | |
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365
perennial
|
|
| adj.终年的；长久的 | |
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366
afterward
|
|
| adv.后来；以后 | |
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367
bleach
|
|
| vt.使漂白；vi.变白；n.漂白剂 | |
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368
treacherously
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|
| 背信弃义地； 背叛地； 靠不住地； 危险地 | |
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369
intervals
|
|
| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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370
staples
|
|
| n.（某国的）主要产品( staple的名词复数 )；钉书钉；U 形钉；主要部份v.用钉书钉钉住( staple的第三人称单数 ) | |
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371
spikes
|
|
| n.穗( spike的名词复数 )；跑鞋；（防滑）鞋钉；尖状物v.加烈酒于( spike的第三人称单数 )；偷偷地给某人的饮料加入（更多）酒精（ 或药物）；把尖状物钉入；打乱某人的计划 | |
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372
devastation
|
|
| n.毁坏；荒废；极度震惊或悲伤 | |
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373
dearth
|
|
| n.缺乏，粮食不足，饥谨 | |
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374
insignificant
|
|
| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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375
cant
|
|
| n.斜穿，黑话，猛扔 | |
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376
latitude
|
|
| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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377
latitudes
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| 纬度 | |
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378
posterity
|
|
| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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379
destined
|
|
| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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380
perfectly
|
|
| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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381
impervious
|
|
| adj.不能渗透的，不能穿过的，不易伤害的 | |
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382
fixed
|
|
| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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383
scraps
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|
| 油渣 | |
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384
holder
|
|
| n.持有者，占有者；(台，架等)支持物 | |
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385
tablecloth
|
|
| n.桌布，台布 | |
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386
poetic
|
|
| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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387
faculty
|
|
| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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388
chattering
|
|
| n. （机器振动发出的）咔嗒声，(鸟等)鸣，啁啾 adj. 喋喋不休的，啾啾声的 动词chatter的现在分词形式 | |
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389
exclusion
|
|
| n.拒绝，排除，排斥，远足，远途旅行 | |
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390
ornaments
|
|
| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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391
dilettantism
|
|
| n.业余的艺术爱好，浅涉文艺，浅薄涉猎 | |
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392
sentimental
|
|
| adj.多愁善感的，感伤的 | |
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393
wholesome
|
|
| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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394
spotted
|
|
| adj.有斑点的，斑纹的，弄污了的 | |
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395
tints
|
|
| 色彩( tint的名词复数 )； 带白的颜色； （淡色）染发剂； 痕迹 | |
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396
virtue
|
|
| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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397
truthfulness
|
|
| n. 符合实际 | |
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398
peculiar
|
|
| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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399
peculiarity
|
|
| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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400
picturesque
|
|
| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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401
suburban
|
|
| adj.城郊的，在郊区的 | |
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402
literally
|
|
| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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403
gale
|
|
| n.大风，强风，一阵闹声（尤指笑声等） | |
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404
plumes
|
|
| 羽毛( plume的名词复数 )； 羽毛饰； 羽毛状物； 升上空中的羽状物 | |
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405
slanted
|
|
| 有偏见的； 倾斜的 | |
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406
tenant
|
|
| n.承租人；房客；佃户；v.租借，租用 | |
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407
coffin
|
|
| n.棺材，灵柩 | |
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408
indifference
|
|
| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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409
complexion
|
|
| n.肤色；情况，局面；气质，性格 | |
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410
shingled
|
|
| adj.盖木瓦的；贴有墙面板的v.用木瓦盖(shingle的过去式和过去分词形式) | |
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411
second-hand
|
|
| adj.用过的，旧的，二手的 | |
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412
latch
|
|
| n.门闩，窗闩；弹簧锁 | |
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413
squat
|
|
| v.蹲坐，蹲下；n.蹲下；adj.矮胖的，粗矮的 | |
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414
squatter
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|
| n.擅自占地者 | |
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415
grandeur
|
|
| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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416
brag
|
|
| v./n.吹牛，自夸；adj.第一流的 | |
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417
hypocrisy
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|
| n.伪善，虚伪 | |
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418
chaff
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|
| v.取笑，嘲笑；n.谷壳 | |
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419
humility
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|
| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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420
subscription
|
|
| n.预订，预订费，亲笔签名，调配法，下标（处方） | |
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421
circumspection
|
|
| n.细心，慎重 | |
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422
contractor
|
|
| n.订约人，承包人，收缩肌 | |
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423
speculation
|
|
| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
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424
oversights
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|
| n.疏忽( oversight的名词复数 )；忽略；失察；负责 | |
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425
coveted
|
|
| adj.令人垂涎的；垂涎的，梦寐以求的v.贪求，觊觎(covet的过去分词)；垂涎；贪图 | |
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426
retirement
|
|
| n.退休，退职 | |
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427
systematically
|
|
| adv.有系统地 | |
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428
ignoble
|
|
| adj.不光彩的，卑鄙的；可耻的 | |
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429
defrauding
|
|
| v.诈取，骗取( defraud的现在分词 ) | |
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430
professed
|
|
| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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431
Neptune
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|
| n.海王星 | |
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432
motes
|
|
| n.尘埃( mote的名词复数 )；斑点 | |
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433
devour
|
|
| v.吞没；贪婪地注视或谛听，贪读；使着迷 | |
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434
devoured
|
|
| 吞没( devour的过去式和过去分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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435
swarm
|
|
| n.(昆虫)等一大群；vi.成群飞舞；蜂拥而入 | |
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436
smelted
|
|
| v.熔炼，提炼（矿石）( smelt的过去式和过去分词 )；合演( costar的过去式和过去分词 )；闻到；嗅出 | |
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437
astonishment
|
|
| n.惊奇，惊异 | |
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438
exacting
|
|
| adj.苛求的，要求严格的 | |
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439
trumpet
|
|
| n.喇叭，喇叭声；v.吹喇叭，吹嘘 | |
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440
whooping
|
|
| 发嗬嗬声的，发咳声的 | |
参考例句： |
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441
trots
|
|
| 小跑，急走( trot的名词复数 )； 匆匆忙忙地走 | |
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442
locusts
|
|
| n.蝗虫( locust的名词复数 )；贪吃的人；破坏者；槐树 | |
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443
depot
|
|
| n.仓库，储藏处；公共汽车站；火车站 | |
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444
melancholy
|
|
| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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445
elasticity
|
|
| n.弹性，伸缩力 | |
参考例句： |
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|
446
questionable
|
|
| adj.可疑的，有问题的 | |
参考例句： |
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447
turnips
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|
| 芜青( turnip的名词复数 )； 芜菁块根； 芜菁甘蓝块根； 怀表 | |
参考例句： |
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448
manure
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|
| n.粪，肥，肥粒；vt.施肥 | |
参考例句： |
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449
stumps
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|
| （被砍下的树的）树桩( stump的名词复数 )； 残肢； （板球三柱门的）柱； 残余部分 | |
参考例句： |
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450
plowing
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|
| v.耕( plow的现在分词 )；犁耕；费力穿过 | |
参考例句： |
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451
virgin
|
|
| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
参考例句： |
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452
deducting
|
|
| v.扣除，减去( deduct的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
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453
nay
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|
| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
参考例句： |
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454
celebrated
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|
| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
参考例句： |
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455
insufficient
|
|
| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
参考例句： |
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456
impartially
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|
| adv.公平地，无私地 | |
参考例句： |
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457
bent
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|
| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
参考例句： |
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458
crooked
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|
| adj.弯曲的；不诚实的，狡猾的，不正当的 | |
参考例句： |
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459
worthy
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|
| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
参考例句： |
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460
artistic
|
|
| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
参考例句： |
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461
inevitable
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|
| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
参考例句： |
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462
commemorate
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|
| vt.纪念，庆祝 | |
参考例句： |
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463
perpetuate
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|
| v.使永存，使永记不忘 | |
参考例句： |
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464
memorable
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|
| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
参考例句： |
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465
manlier
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|
| manly（有男子气概的）的比较级形式 | |
参考例句： |
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466
rattle
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|
| v.飞奔，碰响；激怒；n.碰撞声；拨浪鼓 | |
参考例句： |
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467
saccharine
|
|
| adj.奉承的，讨好的 | |
参考例句： |
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468
guilt
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|
| n.犯罪；内疚；过失，罪责 | |
参考例句： |
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469
slaughter
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|
| n.屠杀，屠宰；vt.屠杀，宰杀 | |
参考例句： |
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470
ravaged
|
|
| 毁坏( ravage的过去式和过去分词 )； 蹂躏； 劫掠； 抢劫 | |
参考例句： |
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471
momentary
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|
| adj.片刻的，瞬息的；短暂的 | |
参考例句： |
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472
incurred
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|
| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
参考例句： |
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473
yeast
|
|
| n.酵母；酵母片；泡沫；v.发酵；起泡沫 | |
参考例句： |
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474
inveterate
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|
| adj.积习已深的，根深蒂固的 | |
参考例句： |
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475
detriment
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|
| n.损害；损害物，造成损害的根源 | |
参考例句： |
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476
abstemiousness
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|
| n.适中，有节制 | |
参考例句： |
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477
larder
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|
| n.食物贮藏室，食品橱 | |
参考例句： |
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478
ripened
|
|
| v.成熟，使熟( ripen的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
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479
leaven
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|
| v.使发酵；n.酵母；影响 | |
参考例句： |
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480
refinement
|
|
| n.文雅；高尚；精美；精制；精炼 | |
参考例句： |
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481
dough
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|
| n.生面团；钱，现款 | |
参考例句： |
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482
leavening
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|
| n.酵母，发酵，发酵物v.使（面团）发酵( leaven的现在分词 )；在…中掺入改变的因素 | |
参考例句： |
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483
swelling
|
|
| n.肿胀 | |
参考例句： |
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484
procured
|
|
| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
参考例句： |
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|
485
synthetic
|
|
| adj.合成的，人工的；综合的；n.人工制品 | |
参考例句： |
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|
486
analytic
|
|
| adj.分析的，用分析方法的 | |
参考例句： |
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|
487
prophesied
|
|
| v.预告，预言( prophesy的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
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|
488
discomfiture
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|
| n.崩溃；大败；挫败；困惑 | |
参考例句： |
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489
mortar
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|
| n.灰浆，灰泥；迫击炮；v.把…用灰浆涂接合 | |
参考例句： |
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490
hogs
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|
| n.（尤指喂肥供食用的）猪( hog的名词复数 )；（供食用的）阉公猪；彻底地做某事；自私的或贪婪的人 | |
参考例句： |
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491
pumpkins
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|
| n.南瓜( pumpkin的名词复数 )；南瓜的果肉，南瓜囊 | |
参考例句： |
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492
beets
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|
| 甜菜( beet的名词复数 )； 甜菜根； （因愤怒、难堪或觉得热而）脸红 | |
参考例句： |
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493
maples
|
|
| 槭树，枫树( maple的名词复数 )； 槭木 | |
参考例句： |
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494
barter
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|
| n.物物交换，以货易货，实物交易 | |
参考例句： |
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495
squatting
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|
| v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的现在分词 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
参考例句： |
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496
tongs
|
|
| n.钳；夹子 | |
参考例句： |
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497
jug
|
|
| n.(有柄，小口，可盛水等的)大壶，罐，盂 | |
参考例句： |
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498
warehouse
|
|
| n.仓库；vt.存入仓库 | |
参考例句： |
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499
buckled
|
|
| a. 有带扣的 | |
参考例句： |
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|
500
gnaw
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|
| v.不断地啃、咬；使苦恼，折磨 | |
参考例句： |
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|
501
trumpery
|
|
| n.无价值的杂物；adj.（物品）中看不中用的 | |
参考例句： |
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502
gateway
|
|
| n.大门口，出入口，途径，方法 | |
参考例句： |
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503
sledge
|
|
| n.雪橇，大锤；v.用雪橇搬运，坐雪橇往 | |
参考例句： |
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504
compassion
|
|
| n.同情，怜悯 | |
参考例句： |
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|
505
entangled
|
|
| adj.卷入的；陷入的；被缠住的；缠在一起的v.使某人（某物/自己）缠绕，纠缠于（某物中），使某人（自己）陷入（困难或复杂的环境中）( entangle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
506
tottering
|
|
| adj.蹒跚的，动摇的v.走得或动得不稳( totter的现在分词 )；踉跄；蹒跚；摇摇欲坠 | |
参考例句： |
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|
507
auction
|
|
| n.拍卖；拍卖会；vt.拍卖 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
508
semblance
|
|
| n.外貌，外表 | |
参考例句： |
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|
509
filth
|
|
| n.肮脏，污物，污秽；淫猥 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
510
abstain
|
|
| v.自制，戒绝，弃权，避免 | |
参考例句： |
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|
511
ingenuity
|
|
| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
参考例句： |
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|
512
distraction
|
|
| n.精神涣散，精神不集中，消遣，娱乐 | |
参考例句： |
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|
513
evergreens
|
|
| n.常青树，常绿植物，万年青( evergreen的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
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|
514
relinquish
|
|
| v.放弃，撤回，让与，放手 | |
参考例句： |
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|
515
mischief
|
|
| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
516
respite
|
|
| n.休息，中止，暂缓 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
517
fugitive
|
|
| adj.逃亡的，易逝的；n.逃犯，逃亡者 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
518
underlie
|
|
| v.位于...之下，成为...的基础 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
519
humane
|
|
| adj.人道的，富有同情心的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
520
forsake
|
|
| vt.遗弃，抛弃；舍弃，放弃 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
521
steadfastness
|
|
| n.坚定，稳当 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
522
persevere
|
|
| v.坚持，坚忍，不屈不挠 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
523
kindled
|
|
| （使某物）燃烧，着火( kindle的过去式和过去分词 )； 激起（感情等）； 发亮，放光 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
524
splendor
|
|
| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
|
525
robin
|
|
| n.知更鸟，红襟鸟 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
|
526
tainting
|
|
| v.使变质( taint的现在分词 )；使污染；败坏；被污染，腐坏，败坏 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
527
steadily
|
|
| adv.稳定地；不变地；持续地 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
528
genial
|
|
| adj.亲切的，和蔼的，愉快的，脾气好的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
529
scorched
|
|
| 烧焦，烤焦( scorch的过去式和过去分词 )； 使（植物）枯萎，把…晒枯； 高速行驶； 枯焦 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
530
hurled
|
|
| v.猛投，用力掷( hurl的过去式和过去分词 )；大声叫骂 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
531
tainted
|
|
| adj.腐坏的；污染的；沾污的；感染的v.使变质( taint的过去式和过去分词 )；使污染；败坏；被污染，腐坏，败坏 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
532
carrion
|
|
| n.腐肉 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
533
parching
|
|
| adj.烘烤似的，焦干似的v.（使）焦干， （使）干透( parch的现在分词 )；使（某人）极口渴 | |
参考例句： |
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|
534
suffocated
|
|
| （使某人）窒息而死( suffocate的过去式和过去分词 )； （将某人）闷死； 让人感觉闷热； 憋气 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
535
mingled
|
|
| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
参考例句： |
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|
536
balked
|
|
| v.畏缩不前，犹豫( balk的过去式和过去分词 )；（指马）不肯跑 | |
参考例句： |
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|
537
consolation
|
|
| n.安慰，慰问 | |
参考例句： |
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|
538
missionaries
|
|
| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
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|
539
persuasiveness
|
|
| 说服力 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
540
flannel
|
|
| n.法兰绒；法兰绒衣服 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
541
hacking
|
|
| n.非法访问计算机系统和数据库的活动 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
542
bestows
|
|
| 赠给，授予( bestow的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
543
needy
|
|
| adj.贫穷的，贫困的，生活艰苦的 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
544
pious
|
|
| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
545
remissness
|
|
| n.玩忽职守；马虎；怠慢；不小心 | |
参考例句： |
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|
546
esteemed
|
|
| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
参考例句： |
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|
547
enumerating
|
|
| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
548
worthies
|
|
| 应得某事物( worthy的名词复数 )； 值得做某事； 可尊敬的； 有（某人或事物）的典型特征 | |
参考例句： |
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|
549
benevolence
|
|
| n.慈悲，捐助 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
550
quacks
|
|
| abbr.quacksalvers 庸医，骗子(16世纪习惯用水银或汞治疗梅毒的人)n.江湖医生( quack的名词复数 )；江湖郎中；（鸭子的）呱呱声v.（鸭子）发出嘎嘎声( quack的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
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|
551
wafted
|
|
| v.吹送，飘送，（使）浮动( waft的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
552
intercourse
|
|
| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
553
contagion
|
|
| n.(通过接触的疾病)传染；蔓延 | |
参考例句： |
|
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|
|
554
wailing
|
|
| v.哭叫，哀号( wail的现在分词 )；沱 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
555
intemperate
|
|
| adj.无节制的，放纵的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
556
brutal
|
|
| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
557
redeem
|
|
| v.买回，赎回，挽回，恢复，履行（诺言等） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
558
bowels
|
|
| n.肠，内脏，内部；肠( bowel的名词复数 )；内部，最深处 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
559
nibble
|
|
| n.轻咬，啃；v.一点点地咬，慢慢啃，吹毛求疵 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
560
populous
|
|
| adj.人口稠密的，人口众多的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
561
crudity
|
|
| n.粗糙，生硬；adj.粗略的 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
562
distress
|
|
| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
|
563
corrupted
|
|
| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
参考例句： |
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|
564
resound
|
|
| v.回响 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
565
melodious
|
|
| adj.旋律美妙的，调子优美的，音乐性的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
566
withdrawn
|
|
| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
567
dispel
|
|
| vt.驱走，驱散，消除 | |
参考例句： |
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|
|
568
umbrageous
|
|
| adj.多荫的 | |
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569
cypress
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| n.柏树 | |
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570
complemental
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| 补足的，补充的 | |
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571
pretensions
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| 自称( pretension的名词复数 )； 自命不凡； 要求； 权力 | |
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572
wretch
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| n.可怜的人，不幸的人；卑鄙的人 | |
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573
firmament
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| n.苍穹；最高层 | |
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574
pedantic
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| adj.卖弄学问的；迂腐的 | |
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575
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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576
necessitated
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| 使…成为必要，需要( necessitate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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577
exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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578
fortitude
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| n.坚忍不拔；刚毅 | |
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579
abject
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| adj.极可怜的，卑屈的 | |
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580
bounteous
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| adj.丰富的 | |
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581
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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