Three fundamental points at which Christianity was corrupted5 by heathenism have been examined. It remains6 to consider another which was not less fundamental, and has not been less persistent—viz., the union of Christianity with the State.
Christ’s Attitude Toward the State.
Christ taught the infinite worth of man as an individual. The divine priesthood of every believer in Christ, and his absolute spiritual kingship over himself, under God, is a fundamental doctrine of the Gospel. On such a platform, Christ proclaimed the absolute separation of Church and State. “My kingdom is not of this world” was the keynote in His proclamation. His kingdom[189] knew neither Jew nor Greek, Roman nor Egyptian, bondman nor freeman. Ethnic7 distinctions and lines of caste were unknown to the world’s Redeemer. Wherever a heart bowed in simple faith and loyal obedience8, there Christ’s kingdom was set up. Placed alongside the state-church theory of Rome, the doctrine of Christ’s kingdom was noonday by the side of midnight. It was a diamond among pebbles9. It was the proclamation of a brotherhood10 all-embracing and eternal. This kingdom rendered unto C?sar the little that was due him, and demanded the fullest and highest allegiance to the invisible but not unknown God. It sought only simple protection from the civil power, and patiently suffered wrong, even unto death, when this was denied. Such a kingdom found its first adherents11 among those who were least entangled12 in the meshes13 of the state religions, and whose hearts opened most loyal to the one God, and His Son, the Christ. These were naturally the common people, who heard gladly, and entered joyfully14 into the heavenly citizenship15. Thus the Church of Christ, like Himself, was born among the lowly, and wholly independent of the state. Such a spiritual kingdom could not be brought under the control of the civil power, and that a pagan power, without being corrupted, if not destroyed.
[190]
Roman Conception of Religion.
The reader will be better prepared to understand how Christianity became corrupted along this line, by considering the genius of the Roman nation, and its conception of religion. The idea of law as the embodiment of absolute power pervaded16 the Roman mind. Men were important only as citizens. Separate from the state, man was nothing. “To be a Roman, was greater than a king.” Every personal right, every interest was subservient17 to the state. This conception of power was the source of Roman greatness, prowess, and success. It conscripted the legions, conquered the world, and made all roads lead to Rome. Previous to Christianity, all religion was ethnic. To the Roman, religion was a part of the civil code. It was a system of contracts between men and the gods, through the civil law. The head of the State was, ex officio, the head of the Department of Religion. There was no place in heathen theories for the Gospel idea of the Church.
Speaking on this point, Dr. Schaff says:
“Of a separation of religion and politics, of the spiritual power from the temporal, heathen antiquity18 knew nothing, because it regarded religion itself only from a natural point of view, and subjected it to the purposes of the all-ruling state, the highest known form of human society.[191] The Egyptian kings, as Plutarch tells us, were at the same time priests, or were received into the priesthood at their election. In Greece the civil magistrate19 had supervision20 of the priests and sanctuaries21. In Rome, after the time of Numa, this supervision was intrusted to a senator, and afterward22 united with the imperial office. All the pagan emperors, from Augustus to Julian the Apostate23, were at the same time supreme pontiffs (Pontifices Maximi), the heads of the state religion, emperor-popes. As such they could not only perform all priestly functions, even to offering sacrifices, when superstition24 or policy prompted them to do so, but they also stood at the head of the highest sacerdotal college (of fifteen or more Pontifices), which in turn regulated and superintended the three lower classes of priests (the Epulones, Quindecemviri, and Augures), the temples and altars, the sacrifices, divinations, feasts and ceremonies, the exposition of the Sibylline25 books, the calendar, in short, all public worship, and in part even the affairs of marriage and inheritance.”[175]
That Christianity must needs become paganized if it became a religion of the state, is shown further by the following, from an editor of Justinian’s Institutes:
“What was most peculiar26 in the religion of Rome was its intimate connection with the civil polity. The heads of religion were not a priestly caste, but were citizens, in all other respects like their fellows, except that they were invested with peculiar sacred offices. The king was at[192] the head of the religious body, and beneath him were augurs27 and other functionaries28 of the ceremonies of religion. The whole body of the populus had a place in the religious system of the state. The mere29 fact of birth in one of the famili? forming part of a gens gave admittance to a sacred circle which was closed to all besides. Those in this circle were surrounded by religious ceremonies from their cradle to their grave. Every important act of their life was sanctioned by solemn rites30. Every division and subdivision of the state to which they belonged had its own peculiar ceremonies. The individual, the family, the gens, were all under the guardianship31 of their respective tutelar deities33. Every locality with which they were familiar was sacred to some patron god. The calendar was marked out by the services of religion. The pleasure of the gods arranged the times of business and leisure; and a constantly superintending Providence35 watched over the councils of the state, and showed, by signs which the wise could understand, approval or displeasure of all that was undertaken.”[176]
The fundamental difference between New Testament36 Christianity and the Roman idea of religion is further shown by the following from Reville and Tiele:
Reville says:
“In Rome religious tradition was an affair of the state, like the priesthood itself. The senate was by right its guardian32. That body legislated37 for religion as for everything[193] else; and when the Greco-Roman paganism persecuted38, it did so from essentially39 political motives40.”[177]
Tiele says:
“Much greater weight was attached by the practical Roman to the cultus than to the doctrines42 of religion. This was the one point of supreme importance; in his view the truly devout43 man was he who punctually performed his religious obligations, who was pious44 according to law. There was a debt to be paid to the gods, which must be discharged, but it was settled if the letter of the contract was fulfilled, and the symbol was given in place of the reality. The animistic conception that the gods might be employed as instruments for securing practical advantages, lies at the basis of the whole Roman cultus. In the earliest times, therefore, it was quite simple, so far as regards the absence of images or temples, but it was at the same time exceedingly complicated and burdened with all kinds of ceremonies and symbolic45 actions, and the least neglect destroyed the efficacy of the sacrifice. This necessitated46 the assistance of priests acquainted with the whole ritual, not to serve as mediators, for the approach to the deity47 was open to all, but to see that pious action failed in no essential element.... Everything was regulated with precision by the government, and the fact that the highest of the priests was always under the control of the state, prevented the rise of a priestly supremacy48, the absence of which in Greece was due to other causes; but the consequence was that the Roman religion remained dry and formal and was external rather than[194] inward. Even the purity (castitas) on which great stress was laid, was only sacerdotal, and was attained49 by lustration, sprinkling, and fumigation50, and the great value attached to prayer, so that a single error had to be atoned51 for as a neglect, had its basis in the superstitious52 belief that it possessed53 a high magic power.”[178]
Religious Syncretism.
The prevailing54 tendency to religious syncretism in the Roman empire paved the way for corrupting55 Christianity by union with the State.
The doctrine of courtesy in religious matters had risen in the Roman mind, to a theory of religious syncretism, which offered recognition to other religions outside the Roman. The religions of the Orient and of Egypt already had a place and protection at Rome. These, like the citizens of the lands whence they came, were taken in charge by the laws of the Mistress of the World. By the opening of the fourth century, Christianity had gained such influence and standing56 that, although it had no claims as an ethnic religion, it was too promising57 a waif to be longer unnoticed. The great empire was conscious of present decline and coming decay. New blood was an imperative58 necessity; perhaps this new religion, that had given[195] such power of endurance to its votaries59, would furnish the needful help.
This recognition, at first, was not in any true sense toleration, nor a full recognition of the freedom of conscience. It was rather such recognition as the foreman gives to the apprentice60: “Come in and show what you can do.” In this recognition Rome adopted no new policy, neither gave evidence of any genuine faith in Apostolic Christianity. As late as 321 A.D., not more than one-twentieth part of the people were Christians61; and Constantine, erroneously called “The first Christian2 emperor,” did not make an open confession62 of Christianity, until he lay on his death-bed in 337 A.D. Christianity was taken under the protection of the empire, to be cared for and controlled according to the genius of Roman history and Roman law. The “Christian emperors,” from Constantine to Gratian (312-383), retained the title of “Pontifex Maximus.” The visiting of heathen temples for religious purposes, and the performance of heathen rites in private, were not prohibited by imperial law until 391-393 A.D. by Theodosius. Nor were these laws then enforced where the heathen element was in the ascendency. Theodosius himself was not deemed an enemy of the old religion; he stood in such favor that the senate enrolled63 him among the gods, after his death, in 395 A.D.[196]
Instead of developing normally, after the simple New Testament model, the Roman church was modelled largely after the Roman empire. The union once begun, political intrigue64 and religious degeneracy followed in rapid succession. All civil legislation in matters of religion pushes the divine authority aside, and substitutes the human. This creates conscience, if at all, toward the state alone, and so remains on heathen ground.
Thus, by descending65 from the high ground of the Apostolic period, from the immediate66 control and direction of the Holy Spirit, to the control of a heathen state-system, and being already weakened by the false philosophies which had driven out the authority of the Word, Christianity was turned far away from its true status and character. The legislation which followed, concerning festivals, ceremonies, and doctrines, was a medley67 of paganism and Christianity, truth and error, widely removed from the Sermon on the Mount, and the epistles of Paul. The kernel68 of Papal error, and the fountain which was the source of the Dark Ages, are both involved in the fundamental perversions69 of Apostolic Christianity.
Since the emperor was, ex officio, the head of the Department of Religion, it was comparatively easy to accomplish the amalgamation70 of the different systems. Gibbon gives an outline picture of[197] this tendency as it prevailed during the third century. It was the more destructive to Christianity because of the degraded character of the emperors and those who controlled the public life of the empire. The emperor of whom Gibbon writes below, is described by Schaff as follows:
“The abandoned youth El-Gabal, or Heliogabalus (218-222), who polluted the throne by the blackest vices34 and follies71, tolerated all the religions in the hope of at last merging72 them in his favorite Syrian worship of the sun, with its abominable73 excesses. He himself was a priest of the god of the sun, and thence took his name.
“His far more worthy74 cousin and successor, Alexander Severus (222-235), was addicted75 to a higher kind of religious eclecticism76 and syncretism, a pantheistic hero-worship. He placed the busts77 of Abraham and Christ in his domestic chapel78, with those of Orpheus, Apollonius of Tyana, and the better Roman emperors, and had the Gospel rule, ‘As ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them,’ engraven on the walls of his palace and on public monuments. His mother, Julia Mamm?a, was a patroness of Origen.”[179]
Gibbon says of this period:
“The sun was worshipped at Emesa, under the name of Elagabalus, and under the form of a black conical stone, which, as it was universally believed, had fallen from heaven on that sacred place. To this protecting deity Antoninus, not without some reason, ascribed his elevation79[198] to the throne. The display of superstitious gratitude80 was the only serious business of his reign81. The triumph of the god of Emesa over all the religions of the earth, was the great object of his zeal82 and vanity; and the appellation83 of Elagabalus (for he presumed, as pontiff and favorite to adopt that sacred name) was dearer to him than all the titles of Imperial greatness. In a solemn procession through the streets of Rome, the way was strewed84 with gold-dust; the black stone, set in precious gems85, was placed on a chariot, drawn86 by six milk-white horses, richly caparisoned. The pious emperor held the reins87, and supported by his ministers, moved slowly backwards88, that he might perpetually enjoy the felicity of the divine presence. In a magnificent temple raised on the Palatine Mount, the sacrifices of the god Elagabalus were celebrated89 with every circumstance of cost and solemnity. The richest wines, the most extraordinary victims, and the rarest aromatics90, were profusely91 consumed on his altar. Around the altar, a chorus of Syrian damsels performed their lascivious92 dances to the sound of barbarian93 music, whilst the gravest personages of the state and army, clothed in long Ph?nician tunics94, officiated in the meanest functions, with affected95 zeal and secret indignation.
“To this temple, as to the common center of religious worship, the Imperial fanatic96 attempted to remove the Ancilia, the Palladium, and all the sacred pledges of the faith of Numa. A crowd of inferior deities attended in various stations the majesty97 of the god of Emesa; but his court was still imperfect, till a female of distinguished98 rank was admitted to his bed. Pallas had been first chosen for his consort99; but, as it was dreaded100 lest her warlike terrors might affright the soft delicacy101 of a Syrian[199] deity, the Moon, adored by the Africans under the name of Astarte, was deemed a more suitable companion for the Sun. Her image, with the rich offerings of her temple as a marriage portion, was transported with solemn pomp from Carthage to Rome, and the day of these mystic nuptials102 was a general festival in the capital and throughout the empire.”[180]
Elagabalus reigned103 from 218 to 222 A.D. The foregoing facts show that the empire was practically prostituted, and given over to the lowest forms of sun-worship during his reign. It was the triumph of Orientalism in the West. The same devotion to sun-worship appears in other emperors, toward the close of the third century.
Aurelian reigned from 270 to 276 A.D. Speaking of the magnificent “Triumph” of this emperor in 274 A.D., Gibbon says:
“So long and so various was the pomp of Aurelian’s triumph, that, although it opened with the dawn of day, the slow majesty of the procession ascended104 not the Capitol before the ninth hour; and it was already dark when the emperor returned to the palace. The festival was protracted105 by theatrical106 representations, the games of the circus, the hunting of wild beasts, combats of gladiators, and naval107 engagements. Liberal donatives were distributed to the army, and people, and several institutions agreeable or beneficial to the city, contributed to perpetuate108 the glory of Aurelian.
[200]
“A considerable portion of his oriental spoils was consecrated109 to the gods of Rome; the Capitol, and every other temple, glittered with the offerings of his ostentatious piety110; and the temple of the Sun alone received above fifteen thousand pounds of gold. This last was a magnificent structure, erected111 by the emperor on the side of the Quirinal hill, and dedicated112, soon after the triumph, to that deity whom Aurelian adored as the parent of his life and fortunes. His mother had been an inferior priestess in a chapel of the Sun; a peculiar devotion to the god of Light was a sentiment which the fortunate peasant imbibed113 in his infancy114; and every step of his elevation, every victory of his reign, fortified115 superstition by gratitude.”[181]
Speaking of Diocletian, who reigned from 284 to 305, Milman says:
“Diocletian himself, though he paid so much deference116 to the older faith as to assume the title of Jovius, as belonging to the Lord of the world, yet, on his accession, when he would exculpate117 himself from all concern in the murder of his predecessor118 Numerian, appealed in the face of the army to the all-seeing deity of the sun. It is the oracle119 of Apollo of Miletus, consulted by the hesitating emperor, which is to decide the fate of Christianity. The metaphorical120 language of Christianity had unconsciously lent strength to this new adversary121; and, in adoring the visible orb122, some, no doubt, supposed that they were not departing far from the worship of the ‘Sun of Righteousness.’”
[201]
In a foot-note, Milman quotes:
“Hermogenes, one of the older heresiarchs, applied123 the text, ‘He has placed his tabernacle in the sun,’ to Christ, and asserted that Christ had put off his body in the sun.”[182]
Dr. Geikie touches the point, and shows in a few words how Christianity yielded to paganism and its corrupting results; he says:
“Helios, the sun, was the great object of worship, and so deep-rooted was this idolatry that the early Christian missionaries124 knew no other way of overthrowing125 it than by changing it into the name of Elias, and turning the temples into churches dedicated to him.”[183]
Two important factors touching126 the union of Christianity and the state are now before the reader.
1. Under the Roman empire all recognized religions were controlled by the civil law. The persecution127 of Christians was based upon the idea that their worship was illegal; or rather that their refusal to worship the national gods, according to the legal cultus, was an offence against the commonwealth128.
2. Sun-worship in its higher and lower forms was the prevailing and popular cult41 at Rome in the third and fourth centuries of Christian history.[202] The emperors were devotees of this cult. It was therefore a foregone necessity that when Christianity grew strong enough to be entitled to recognition rather than persecution, it should be adopted by the state, and further commingled129 with the prevailing sun-worship. The next chapter will show how this was accomplished130.
点击
收听单词发音
收听单词发音 |
1
doctrine
|
|
| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
2
Christian
|
|
| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
3
supreme
|
|
| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
4
corruption
|
|
| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
5
corrupted
|
|
| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
6
remains
|
|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
7
ethnic
|
|
| adj.人种的，种族的，异教徒的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
8
obedience
|
|
| n.服从，顺从 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
9
pebbles
|
|
| [复数]鹅卵石； 沙砾； 卵石，小圆石( pebble的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
10
brotherhood
|
|
| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
11
adherents
|
|
| n.支持者，拥护者( adherent的名词复数 )；党羽；徒子徒孙 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
12
entangled
|
|
| adj.卷入的；陷入的；被缠住的；缠在一起的v.使某人（某物/自己）缠绕，纠缠于（某物中），使某人（自己）陷入（困难或复杂的环境中）( entangle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
13
meshes
|
|
| 网孔( mesh的名词复数 )； 网状物； 陷阱； 困境 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
14
joyfully
|
|
| adv. 喜悦地, 高兴地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
15
citizenship
|
|
| n.市民权，公民权，国民的义务(身份) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
16
pervaded
|
|
| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
17
subservient
|
|
| adj.卑屈的，阿谀的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
18
antiquity
|
|
| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
19
magistrate
|
|
| n.地方行政官，地方法官，治安官 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
20
supervision
|
|
| n.监督，管理 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
21
sanctuaries
|
|
| n.避难所( sanctuary的名词复数 )；庇护；圣所；庇护所 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
22
afterward
|
|
| adv.后来；以后 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
23
apostate
|
|
| n.背叛者，变节者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
24
superstition
|
|
| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
25
sibylline
|
|
| adj.预言的；神巫的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
26
peculiar
|
|
| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
27
augurs
|
|
| n.（古罗马的）占兆官( augur的名词复数 )；占卜师，预言者v.预示，预兆，预言( augur的第三人称单数 )；成为预兆；占卜 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
28
functionaries
|
|
| n.公职人员，官员( functionary的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
29
mere
|
|
| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
30
rites
|
|
| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
31
guardianship
|
|
| n. 监护, 保护, 守护 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
32
guardian
|
|
| n.监护人；守卫者，保护者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
33
deities
|
|
| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
34
vices
|
|
| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
35
providence
|
|
| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
36
testament
|
|
| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
37
legislated
|
|
| v.立法，制定法律( legislate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
38
persecuted
|
|
| （尤指宗教或政治信仰的）迫害(~sb. for sth.)( persecute的过去式和过去分词 )； 烦扰，困扰或骚扰某人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
39
essentially
|
|
| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
40
motives
|
|
| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
41
cult
|
|
| n.异教，邪教；时尚，狂热的崇拜 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
42
doctrines
|
|
| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
43
devout
|
|
| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
44
pious
|
|
| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
45
symbolic
|
|
| adj.象征性的，符号的，象征主义的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
46
necessitated
|
|
| 使…成为必要，需要( necessitate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
47
deity
|
|
| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
48
supremacy
|
|
| n.至上；至高权力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
49
attained
|
|
| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
50
fumigation
|
|
| n.烟熏，熏蒸；忿恨 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
51
atoned
|
|
| v.补偿，赎（罪）( atone的过去式和过去分词 )；补偿，弥补，赎回 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
52
superstitious
|
|
| adj.迷信的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
53
possessed
|
|
| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
54
prevailing
|
|
| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
55
corrupting
|
|
| （使）败坏( corrupt的现在分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
56
standing
|
|
| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
57
promising
|
|
| adj.有希望的，有前途的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
58
imperative
|
|
| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
59
votaries
|
|
| n.信徒( votary的名词复数 )；追随者；（天主教）修士；修女 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
60
apprentice
|
|
| n.学徒，徒弟 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
61
Christians
|
|
| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
62
confession
|
|
| n.自白，供认，承认 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
63
enrolled
|
|
| adj.入学登记了的v.[亦作enrol]( enroll的过去式和过去分词 )；登记，招收，使入伍（或入会、入学等），参加，成为成员；记入名册；卷起，包起 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
64
intrigue
|
|
| vt.激起兴趣，迷住；vi.耍阴谋；n.阴谋，密谋 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
65
descending
|
|
| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
66
immediate
|
|
| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
67
medley
|
|
| n.混合 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
68
kernel
|
|
| n.(果实的)核，仁；(问题)的中心，核心 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
69
perversions
|
|
| n.歪曲( perversion的名词复数 )；变坏；变态心理 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
70
amalgamation
|
|
| n.合并，重组；；汞齐化 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
71
follies
|
|
| 罪恶，时事讽刺剧； 愚蠢，蠢笨，愚蠢的行为、思想或做法( folly的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
72
merging
|
|
| 合并（分类） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
73
abominable
|
|
| adj.可厌的，令人憎恶的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
74
worthy
|
|
| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
75
addicted
|
|
| adj.沉溺于....的，对...上瘾的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
76
eclecticism
|
|
| n.折衷主义 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
77
busts
|
|
| 半身雕塑像( bust的名词复数 )； 妇女的胸部； 胸围； 突击搜捕 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
78
chapel
|
|
| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
79
elevation
|
|
| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
80
gratitude
|
|
| adj.感激，感谢 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
81
reign
|
|
| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
82
zeal
|
|
| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
83
appellation
|
|
| n.名称，称呼 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
84
strewed
|
|
| v.撒在…上( strew的过去式和过去分词 )；散落于；点缀；撒满 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
85
gems
|
|
| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
86
drawn
|
|
| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
87
reins
|
|
| 感情，激情； 缰( rein的名词复数 )； 控制手段； 掌管； （成人带着幼儿走路以防其走失时用的）保护带 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
88
backwards
|
|
| adv.往回地，向原处，倒，相反，前后倒置地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
89
celebrated
|
|
| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
90
aromatics
|
|
| n.芳香植物( aromatic的名词复数 )；芳香剂，芳香药物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
91
profusely
|
|
| ad.abundantly | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
92
lascivious
|
|
| adj.淫荡的，好色的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
93
barbarian
|
|
| n.野蛮人；adj.野蛮(人)的；未开化的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
94
tunics
|
|
| n.（动植物的）膜皮( tunic的名词复数 )；束腰宽松外衣；一套制服的短上衣；（天主教主教等穿的）短祭袍 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
95
affected
|
|
| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
96
fanatic
|
|
| n.狂热者，入迷者；adj.狂热入迷的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
97
majesty
|
|
| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
98
distinguished
|
|
| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
99
consort
|
|
| v.相伴；结交 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
100
dreaded
|
|
| adj.令人畏惧的；害怕的v.害怕，恐惧，担心( dread的过去式和过去分词) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
101
delicacy
|
|
| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
102
nuptials
|
|
| n.婚礼；婚礼( nuptial的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
103
reigned
|
|
| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
104
ascended
|
|
| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
105
protracted
|
|
| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
106
theatrical
|
|
| adj.剧场的，演戏的；做戏似的，做作的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
107
naval
|
|
| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
108
perpetuate
|
|
| v.使永存，使永记不忘 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
109
consecrated
|
|
| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
110
piety
|
|
| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
111
ERECTED
|
|
| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
112
dedicated
|
|
| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
113
imbibed
|
|
| v.吸收( imbibe的过去式和过去分词 )；喝；吸取；吸气 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
114
infancy
|
|
| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
115
fortified
|
|
| adj. 加强的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
116
deference
|
|
| n.尊重，顺从；敬意 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
117
exculpate
|
|
| v.开脱，使无罪 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
118
predecessor
|
|
| n.前辈，前任 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
119
oracle
|
|
| n.神谕，神谕处，预言 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
120
metaphorical
|
|
| a.隐喻的，比喻的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
121
adversary
|
|
| adj.敌手，对手 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
122
orb
|
|
| n.太阳；星球；v.弄圆；成球形 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
123
applied
|
|
| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
124
missionaries
|
|
| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
125
overthrowing
|
|
| v.打倒，推翻( overthrow的现在分词 )；使终止 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
126
touching
|
|
| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
127
persecution
|
|
| n. 迫害,烦扰 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
128
commonwealth
|
|
| n.共和国，联邦，共同体 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
129
commingled
|
|
| v.混合，掺和，合并( commingle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
130
accomplished
|
|
| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
| 欢迎访问英文小说网 |