In his “Folk-lore1 Relics2 of Early Village Life,” 1883, Mr. Gomme devotes a chapter to “Early Domestic Customs,” and quotes Henry’s “History of Great Britain” for a highly curious clue to the primitive3 mode of dressing4 food, and partaking of it, among the Britons. Among the Anglo-Saxons the choice of poultry5 and game was fairly wide. Alexander Neckani, in his “Treatise on Utensils6 (twelfth century)” gives fowls8, cocks, peacocks, the cock of the wood (the woodcock, not the capercailzie), thrushes, pheasants, and several more; and pigeons were only too plentiful9. The hare and the rabbit were well enough known, and with the leveret form part of an enumeration10 of wild animals (animalium ferarum) in a pictorial11 vocabulary of the fifteenth century. But in the very early accounts or lists, although they must have soon been brought into requisition, they are not specifically cited as current dishes. How far this is attributable to the alleged12 repugnance13 of the Britons to use the hare for the table, as Caesar apprises14 us that they kept it only voluptatis causa, it is hard to say; but the way in which the author of the “Commentaries” puts it induces the persuasion15 that by lepus he means not the hare, but the rabbit, as the former would scarcely be domesticated16.
Neckam gives very minute directions for the preparation of pork for the table. He appears to have considered that broiling17 on the grill18 was the best way; the gridiron had supplanted19 the hot stones or bricks in more fashionable households, and he recommends a brisk fire, perhaps with an eye to the skilful20 development of the crackling. He died without the happiness of bringing his archi-episcopal nostrils21 in contact with the sage22 and onions of wiser generations, and thinks that a little salt is enough. But, as we have before explained, Neckam prescribed for great folks. These refinements23 were unknown beyond the precincts of the palace and the castle.
In the ancient cookery-book, the “Menagier de Paris,” 1393, which offers numerous points of similarity to our native culinary lore, the resources of the cuisine25 are represented as amplified26 by receipts for dressing hedgehogs, squirrels, magpies27, and jackdaws — small deer, which the English experts did not affect, although I believe that the hedgehog is frequently used to this day by country folk, both here and abroad, and in India. It has white, rabbit-like flesh.
In an eleventh century vocabulary we meet with a tolerably rich variety of fish, of which the consumption was relatively28 larger in former times. The Saxons fished both with the basket and the net. Among the fish here enumerated29 are the whale (which was largely used for food), the dolphin, porpoise30, crab31, oyster32, herring, cockle, smelt33, and eel34. But in the supplement to Alfric’s vocabulary, and in another belonging to the same epoch35, there are important additions to this list: the salmon36, the trout37, the lobster38, the bleak39, with the whelk and other shell-fish. But we do not notice the turbot, sole, and many other varieties, which became familiar in the next generation or so. The turbot and sole are indeed included in the “Treatise on Utensils” of Neckam, as are likewise the lamprey (of which King John is said to have been very fond), bleak, gudgeon, conger, plaice, limpet, ray, and mackerel.
The fifteenth century, if I may judge from a vocabulary of that date in Wright’s collection, acquired a much larger choice of fish, and some of the names approximate more nearly to those in modern use. We meet with the sturgeon, the whiting, the roach, the miller’s thumb, the thomback, the codling, the perch40, the gudgeon, the turbot, the pike, the tench, and the haddock. It is worth noticing also that a distinction was now drawn41 between the fisherman and the fishmonger — the man who caught the fish and he who sold it — piscator and piscarius; and in the vocabulary itself the leonine line is cited: “Piscator prendit, quod piscarius bene vendit.”
The whale was considerably42 brought into requisition for gastronomic43 purposes. It was found on the royal table, as well as on that of the Lord Mayor of London. The cook either roasted it, and served it up on the spit, or boiled it and sent it in with peas; the tongue and the tail were favourite parts.
The porpoise, however, was brought into the hall whole, and was carved or under-tranched by the officer in attendance. It was eaten with mustard. The pièce de résistance at a banquet which Wolsey gave to some of his official acquaintances in 1509, was a young porpoise, which had cost eight shillings; it was on the same occasion that His Eminence44 partook of strawberries and cream, perhaps; he is reported to have been the person who made that pleasant combination fashionable. The grampus, or sea-wolf, was another article of food which bears testimony45 to the coarse palate of the early Englishman, and at the same time may afford a clue to the partiality for disguising condiments46 and spices. But it appears from an entry in his Privy47 Purse Expenses, under September 8, 1498, that Henry the Seventh thought a porpoise a valuable commodity and a fit dish for an ambassador, for on that date twenty-one shillings were paid to Cardinal48 Morton’s servant, who had procured49 one for some envoy50 then in London, perhaps the French representative, who is the recipient51 of a complimentary52 gratuity53 of ￡49 10s. on April 12, 1499, at his departure from England.
In the fifteenth century the existing stock of fish for culinary purposes received, if we may trust the vocabularies, a few accessions; as, for instance, the bream, the skate, the flounder, and the bake.
In “Piers of Fulham (14th century),” we hear of the good store of fat eels54 imported into England from the Low Countries, and to be had cheap by anyone who watched the tides; but the author reprehends55 the growing luxury of using the livers of young fish before they were large enough to be brought to the table.
The most comprehensive catalogue of fish brought to table in the time of Charles I. is in a pamphlet of 1644, inserted among my “Fugitive Tracts,” 1875; and includes the oyster, which used to be eaten at breakfast with wine, the crab, lobster, sturgeon, salmon, ling, flounder, plaice, whiting, sprat, herring, pike, bream, roach, dace, and eel. The writer states that the sprat and herring were used in Lent. The sound of the stock-fish, boiled in wort or thin ale till they were tender, then laid on a cloth and dried, and finally cut into strips, was thought a good receipt for book-glue.
An acquaintance is in possession of an old cookery-book which exhibits the gamut57 of the fish as it lies in the frying-pan, reducing its supposed lament58 to musical notation59. Here is an ingenious refinement24 and a delicate piece of irony60, which Walton and Cotton might have liked to forestall61.
The 15th century Nominale enriches the catalogue of dishes then in vogue62. It specifies63 almond-milk, rice, gruel64, fish-broth65 or soup, a sort of fricassee of fowl7, collops, a pie, a pasty, a tart66, a tartlet67, a charlet (minced pork), apple-juice, a dish called jussell made of eggs and grated bread with seasoning68 of sage and saffron, and the three generic69 heads of sod or boiled, roast, and fried meats. In addition to the fish-soup, they had wine-soup, water-soup, ale-soup; and the flawn is reinforced by the froise. Instead of one Latin equivalent for a pudding, it is of moment to record that there are now three: nor should we overlook the rasher and the sausage. It is the earliest place where we get some of our familiar articles of diet — beef, mutton, pork, veal70 — under their modern names; and about the same time such terms present themselves as “a broth,” “a browis,” “a pottage,” “a mess.”
Of the dishes which have been specified71, the froise corresponded to an omelette au lard of modern French cookery, having strips of bacon in it. The tansy was an omelette of another description, made chiefly with eggs and chopped herbs. As the former was a common dish in the monasteries72, it is not improbable that it was one grateful to the palate. In Lydgate’s “Story of Thebes,” a sort of sequel to the “Canterbury Tales,” the pilgrims invite the poet to join the supper-table, where there were these tasty omelettes: moile, made of marrow73 and grated bread, and haggis, which is supposed to be identical with the Scottish dish so called. Lydgate, who belonged to the monastery74 of Bury St. Edmunds, doubtless set on the table at Canterbury some of the dainties with which he was familiar at home; and this practice, which runs through all romantic and imaginative literature, constitutes, in our appreciation75, its principal worth. We love and cherish it for its very sins against chronological76 and topographical fitness — its contempt of all unities77. Men transferred local circumstances and a local colouring to their pictures of distant countries and manners. They argued the unknown from what they saw under their own eyes. They portrayed78 to us what, so far as the scenes and characters of their story went, was undeceivingly false, but what on the contrary, had it not been so, would never have been unveiled respecting themselves and their time.
The expenditure79 on festive80 occasions seems, from some of the entries in the “Northumberland Household Book,” to present a strong contrast to the ordinary dietary allowed to the members of a noble and wealthy household, especially on fish days, in the earlier Tudor era (1512). The noontide breakfast provided for the Percy establishment was of a very modest character: my lord and my lady had, for example, a loaf of bread, two manchets (loaves of finer bread), a quart of beer and one of wine, two pieces of salt fish, and six baked herrings or a dish of sprats. My lord Percy and Master Thomas Percy had half a loaf of household bread, a manchet, a pottle of beer, a dish of butter, a piece of salt fish, and a dish of sprats or three white herrings; and the nursery breakfast for my lady Margaret and Master Ingram Percy was much the same. But on flesh days my lord and lady fared better, for they had a loaf of bread, two manchets, a quart of beer and the same of wine, and half a chine of mutton or boiled beef; while the nursery repast consisted of a manchet, a quart of beer, and three boiled mutton breasts; and so on: whence it is deducible that in the Percy family, perhaps in all other great houses, the members and the ladies and gentlemen in waiting partook of their earliest meal apart in their respective chambers81, and met only at six to dine or sup.
The beer, which was an invariable part of the menu, was perhaps brewed83 from hops84 which, according to Harrison elsewhere quoted, were, after a long discontinuance, again coming into use about this time. But it would be a light-bodied drink which was allotted85 to the consumption at all events of Masters Thomas and Ingram Percy, and even of my Lady Margaret. It is clearly not irrelevant86 to my object to correct the general impression that the great families continued throughout the year to support the strain which the system of keeping open house must have involved. For, as Warner has stated, there were intervals87 during which the aristocracy permitted themselves to unbend, and shook off the trammels imposed on them by their social rank and responsibility. This was known as “keeping secret house,” or, in other words, my lord became for a season incognito88, and retired89 to one of his remoter properties for relaxation90 and repose91. Our kings in some measure did the same; for they held their revels92 only, as a rule, at stated times and places. William I. is said to have kept his Easter at Winchester, his Whitsuntide at Westminster, and his Christmas at Gloucester. Even these antique grandees93 had to work on some plan. It could not be all mirth and jollity.
A recital94 of some of the articles on sale in a baker’s or confectioner’s shop in 1563, occurs in Newbery’s “Dives Pragmaticus”: simnels, buns, cakes, biscuits, comfits, caraways, and cracknels: and this is the first occurrence of the bun that I have hitherto been able to detect. The same tract56 supplies us with a few other items germane95 to my subject: figs96, almonds, long pepper, dates, prunes97, and nutmegs. It is curious to watch how by degrees the kitchen department was furnished with articles which nowadays are viewed as the commonest necessaries of life.
In the 17th century the increased communication with the Continent made us by degrees larger partakers of the discoveries of foreign cooks. Noblemen and gentlemen travelling abroad brought back with them receipts for making the dishes which they had tasted in the course of their tours. In the “Compleat Cook,” 1655 and 1662, the beneficial operation of actual experience of this kind, and of the introduction of such books as the “Receipts for Dutch Victual” and “Epulario, or the Italian Banquet,” to English readers and students, is manifest enough; for in the latter volume we get such entries as these: “To make a Portugal dish;” “To make a Virginia dish;” “A Persian dish;” “A Spanish olio;” and then there are receipts “To make a Posset the Earl of Arundel’s way;” “To make the Lady Abergavenny’s Cheese;” “The Jacobin’s Pottage;” “To make Mrs. Leeds’ Cheesecakes;” “The Lord Conway His Lordship’s receipt for the making of Amber82 Puddings;” “The Countess of Rutland’s receipt of making the Rare Banbury Cake, which was so much praised as her daughter’s (the Right Honourable99 Lady Chaworth) Pudding,” and “To make Poor Knights”— the last a medley100 in which bread, cream, and eggs were the leading materials.
Warner, however, in the “Additional Notes and Observations” to his “Antiquitates Culinariae,” 1791, expresses himself adversely101 to the foreign systems of cookery from an English point of view. “Notwithstanding,” he remarks, “the partiality of our countrymen to French cookery, yet that mode of disguising meat in this kingdom (except perhaps in the hottest part of the hottest season of the year) is an absurdity102. It is here the art of spoiling good meat. The same art, indeed, in the South of France; where the climate is much warmer, and the flesh of the animal lean and insipid103, is highly valuable; it is the art of making bad meat eatable.” At the same time, he acknowledges the superior thrift104 and intelligence of the French cooks, and instances the frog and the horse. “The frog is considered in this country as a disgusting animal, altogether unfit for the purposes of the kitchen; whereas, by the efforts of French cookery, the thighs105 of this little creature are converted into a delicate and estimable dish.” So sings, too (save the mark!), our Charles Lamb, so far back as 1822, after his visit to Paris. It seems that in Elizabeth’s reign98 a powdered, or pickled horse was considered a suitable dish by a French general entertaining at dinner some English officers.
It is difficult to avoid an impression that Warner has some reason, when he suggests that the immoderate use of condiments was brought to us by the dwellers106 under a higher temperature, and was not really demanded in such a climate as that of England, where meat can be kept sweet in ordinary seasons, much longer even than in France or in Italy. But let us bear in mind, too, how different from our own the old English cuisine was, and how many strange beasts calling for lubricants it comprehended within its range.
An edifying107 insight into the old Scottish cuisine among people of the better sort is afforded by Fynes Morisoh, in his description of a stay at a knight’s house in North Britain in 1598.
“Myself,” he says, “was at a knight’s house, who had many servants to attend him, that brought in his meat with their heads covered with blue caps, the table being more than half furnished with great platters of porridge, each having a little piece of sodden108 meat; and when the tables were served, the servants did sit down with us; but the upper mess, instead of porridge, had a pullet with some prunes in the broth. And I observed no art of cookery, or furniture of household stuff, but rather rude neglect of both, though myself and my companion, sent by the Governor of Berwick upon bordering affairs, were entertained in the best manner. The Scots . . . vulgarly eat hearth-cakes of oats, but in cities have also wheaten bread, which, for the most part, was bought by courtiers, gentlemen, and the best sort of citizens. When I lived at Berwick, the Scots weekly upon the market day obtained leave in writing of the governor to buy peas and beans, whereof, as also of wheat, their merchants to this day (1617) send great quantities from London into Scotland. They drink pure wine, not with sugar, as the English, yet at feasts they put comfits in the wine, after the French manner: but they had not our vintners’ fraud to mix their wines.”
He proceeds to say that he noticed no regular inns, with signs hanging out, but that private householders would entertain passengers on entreaty109, or where acquaintance was claimed. The last statement is interestingly corroborated110 by the account which Taylor the Water-Poet printed in 1618 of his journey to Scotland, and which he termed his “Penniless Pilgrimage or Moneyless Perambulation,” in the course of which he purports111 to have depended entirely112 on private hospitality.
A friend says: “The Scotch113 were long very poor. Only their fish, oatmeal, and whiskey kept them alive. Fish was very cheap.” This remark sounds the key-note of a great English want — cheaper fish. Of meat we already eat enough, or too much; but of fish we might eat more, if it could be brought at a low price to our doors. It is a noteworthy collateral114 fact that in the Lord Mayor of London’s Pageant115 of 1590 there is a representation of the double advantage which would accrue116 if the unemployed117 poor were engaged to facilitate and cheapen the supply of fish to the City; and here we are, three centuries forward, with the want still very imperfectly answered.
Besides the bread and oatmeal above named, the bannock played its part. “The Land o’ Cakes” was more than a trim and pretty phrase: there was in it a deep eloquence118; it marked a wide national demand and supply.
The “Penny Magazine” for 1842 has a good and suggestive paper on “Feasts and Entertainments,” with extracts from some of the early dramatists and a woodcut of “a new French cook, to devise fine kickshaws and toys.” One curious point is brought out here in the phrase “boiled jiggets of mutton,” which shews that the French gigot for a leg of mutton was formerly119 in use here. Like many other Gallicisms, it lingered in Scotland down to our own time.
The cut of the French cook above mentioned is a modern composition; and indeed some of the excerpts120 from Ben Jonson and other writers are of an extravagant121 and hyperbolical cast — better calculated to amuse an audience than to instruct the student.
Mr. Lucas remarks: “It is probable that we are more dependent upon animal food than we used to be. In their early days, the present generation of dalesmen fed almost exclusively upon oatmeal; either as ‘hasty-pudding,’— that is, Scotch oatmeal which had been ground over again, so as to be nearly as fine as flour; . . . or ‘lumpy,’— that is, boiled quickly and not thoroughly122 stirred; or else in one of the three kinds of cake which they call ‘fermented,’ viz., ‘riddle cake,’ ‘held-on cake,’ or ‘turn-down cake,’ which is made from oatcake batter123 poured on the ‘bak’ ston’’ from the ladle, and then spread with the back of the ladle. It does not rise like an oatcake. Or of a fourth kind called ‘clap cake.’ They also made ‘tiffany cakes’ of wheaten flour, which was separated from the bran by being worked through a hair-sieve tiffany, or temse:— south of England Tammy — with a brush called the Brush shank.”
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1
lore
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| n.传说；学问，经验，知识 | |
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relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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dressing
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| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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poultry
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| n.家禽，禽肉 | |
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utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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fowl
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| n.家禽，鸡，禽肉 | |
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fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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plentiful
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| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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enumeration
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| n.计数，列举；细目；详表；点查 | |
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pictorial
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| adj.绘画的；图片的；n．画报 | |
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alleged
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| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
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repugnance
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| n.嫌恶 | |
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apprises
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| v.告知，通知( apprise的第三人称单数 )；评价 | |
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persuasion
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| n.劝说；说服；持有某种信仰的宗派 | |
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domesticated
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| adj.喜欢家庭生活的；（指动物）被驯养了的v.驯化( domesticate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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broiling
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| adj.酷热的，炽热的，似烧的v.（用火）烤（焙、炙等）( broil的现在分词 )；使卷入争吵；使混乱；被烤（或炙） | |
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grill
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| n.烤架，铁格子，烤肉；v.烧，烤，严加盘问 | |
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supplanted
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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nostrils
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| 鼻孔( nostril的名词复数 ) | |
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sage
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| n.圣人，哲人；adj.贤明的，明智的 | |
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refinements
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| n.（生活）风雅；精炼( refinement的名词复数 )；改良品；细微的改良；优雅或高贵的动作 | |
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refinement
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| n.文雅；高尚；精美；精制；精炼 | |
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cuisine
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| n.烹调，烹饪法 | |
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amplified
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| 放大，扩大( amplify的过去式和过去分词 )； 增强； 详述 | |
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magpies
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| 喜鹊（magpie的复数形式） | |
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relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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enumerated
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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porpoise
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| n.鼠海豚 | |
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crab
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| n.螃蟹，偏航，脾气乖戾的人，酸苹果；vi.捕蟹，偏航，发牢骚；vt.使偏航，发脾气 | |
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oyster
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| n.牡蛎；沉默寡言的人 | |
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smelt
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| v.熔解，熔炼；n.银白鱼，胡瓜鱼 | |
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eel
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| n.鳗鲡 | |
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epoch
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| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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salmon
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| n.鲑，大马哈鱼，橙红色的 | |
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trout
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| n.鳟鱼；鲑鱼(属) | |
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lobster
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| n.龙虾，龙虾肉 | |
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bleak
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| adj.(天气)阴冷的；凄凉的；暗淡的 | |
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perch
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| n.栖木，高位，杆；v.栖息，就位，位于 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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gastronomic
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| adj.美食（烹饪）法的，烹任学的 | |
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eminence
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| n.卓越，显赫；高地，高处；名家 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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condiments
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| n.调味品 | |
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privy
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| adj.私用的；隐密的 | |
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cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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envoy
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| n.使节，使者，代表，公使 | |
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recipient
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| a.接受的,感受性强的 n.接受者,感受者,容器 | |
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52
complimentary
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| adj.赠送的，免费的，赞美的，恭维的 | |
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53
gratuity
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| n.赏钱，小费 | |
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54
eels
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| abbr. 电子发射器定位系统（=electronic emitter location system） | |
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55
reprehends
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| v.斥责，指摘，责备( reprehend的第三人称单数 ) | |
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tract
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| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
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gamut
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| n.全音阶，(一领域的)全部知识 | |
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lament
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| n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹 | |
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notation
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| n.记号法，表示法，注释；[计算机]记法 | |
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60
irony
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| n.反语，冷嘲；具有讽刺意味的事，嘲弄 | |
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forestall
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| vt.抢在…之前采取行动；预先阻止 | |
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62
Vogue
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| n.时髦，时尚；adj.流行的 | |
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specifies
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| v.指定( specify的第三人称单数 )；详述；提出…的条件；使具有特性 | |
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gruel
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| n.稀饭，粥 | |
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broth
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| n.原(汁)汤(鱼汤、肉汤、菜汤等) | |
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tart
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| adj.酸的；尖酸的，刻薄的；n.果馅饼；淫妇 | |
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tartlet
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| n.小形的果子馅饼 | |
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seasoning
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| n.调味；调味料；增添趣味之物 | |
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generic
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| adj.一般的，普通的，共有的 | |
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veal
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| n.小牛肉 | |
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specified
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| adj.特定的 | |
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72
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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marrow
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| n.骨髓；精华；活力 | |
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monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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chronological
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| adj.按年月顺序排列的，年代学的 | |
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unities
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| n.统一体( unity的名词复数 )；（艺术等） 完整；（文学、戏剧） （情节、时间和地点的）统一性；团结一致 | |
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portrayed
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| v.画像( portray的过去式和过去分词 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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festive
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| adj.欢宴的，节日的 | |
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chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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amber
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| n.琥珀；琥珀色；adj.琥珀制的 | |
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brewed
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| 调制( brew的过去式和过去分词 )； 酝酿； 沏（茶）； 煮（咖啡） | |
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hops
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| 跳上[下]( hop的第三人称单数 )； 单足蹦跳； 齐足（或双足）跳行； 摘葎草花 | |
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allotted
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| 分配，拨给，摊派( allot的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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irrelevant
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| adj.不恰当的，无关系的，不相干的 | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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incognito
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| adv.匿名地；n.隐姓埋名；adj.化装的，用假名的，隐匿姓名身份的 | |
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retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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relaxation
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| n.松弛，放松；休息；消遣；娱乐 | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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revels
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| n.作乐( revel的名词复数 )；狂欢；着迷；陶醉v.作乐( revel的第三人称单数 )；狂欢；着迷；陶醉 | |
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grandees
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| n.贵族，大公，显贵者( grandee的名词复数 ) | |
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recital
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| n.朗诵，独奏会，独唱会 | |
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germane
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| adj.关系密切的，恰当的 | |
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figs
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| figures 数字，图形，外形 | |
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prunes
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| n.西梅脯，西梅干( prune的名词复数 )v.修剪（树木等）( prune的第三人称单数 )；精简某事物，除去某事物多余的部分 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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100
medley
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| n.混合 | |
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101
adversely
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| ad.有害地 | |
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102
absurdity
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| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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103
insipid
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| adj.无味的，枯燥乏味的，单调的 | |
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104
thrift
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| adj.节约，节俭；n.节俭，节约 | |
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105
thighs
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| n.股，大腿( thigh的名词复数 )；食用的鸡（等的）腿 | |
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dwellers
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| n.居民，居住者( dweller的名词复数 ) | |
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107
edifying
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| adj.有教训意味的，教训性的，有益的v.开导，启发( edify的现在分词 ) | |
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108
sodden
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| adj.浑身湿透的；v.使浸透；使呆头呆脑 | |
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109
entreaty
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| n.恳求，哀求 | |
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110
corroborated
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| v.证实，支持（某种说法、信仰、理论等）( corroborate的过去式 ) | |
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111
purports
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| v.声称是…，（装得）像是…的样子( purport的第三人称单数 ) | |
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112
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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113
scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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114
collateral
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| adj.平行的；旁系的；n.担保品 | |
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115
pageant
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| n.壮观的游行；露天历史剧 | |
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116
accrue
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| v.(利息等)增大，增多 | |
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117
unemployed
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| adj.失业的，没有工作的；未动用的，闲置的 | |
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118
eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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119
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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120
excerpts
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| n.摘录，摘要( excerpt的名词复数 )；节选（音乐，电影）片段 | |
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121
extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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122
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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123
batter
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| v.接连重击；磨损；n.牛奶面糊；击球员 | |
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