In a glossary11 of the tenth-eleventh century only two meals are quoted: undermeat = prandium, and even-meat = coena. That is to say, our Saxon precursors12 were satisfied as a rule with two repasts daily, but to this in more luxurious13 times were added the supper and even the rear-supper, the latter being, so far as we know, a second course or dessert and the bipartite collation14 corresponding to the modern late dinner. But it is one of those strange survivals of ancient manners which people practise without any consciousness of the fact, which is at the root of the fashion, which still occasionally prevails, of dividing the chief meal of the day by an interval3 of repose15, and taking the wine and dessert an hour or two after the other courses; and the usage in our colleges and inns of court of retiring to another apartment to “wine” may claim the same origin. It is obvious that the rear-supper was susceptible16 of becoming the most important and costly17 part of an entertainment; and that it frequently assumed extravagant18 proportions, many passages from our early poets might be adduced to prove.
In the “Book of Cookery,” 1500, we have the menu at the installation of Archbishop Nevill in York in 1467; but the bill of fare of a feast given by him in 1452 at Oxford19, where he is mentioned as Master Nevill, son of the Earl of Salisbury, is inserted from the Cotton Ms. Titus, in “Reliquiae Antiquae,” 1841. It consisted of three courses, which seem to have been the customary limit. Of course, however, the usage varied20, as in the “Song of the Boar’s Head,” of which there are two or three versions, two courses only are specified21 in what has the air of having been a rather sumptuous22 entertainment.
The old low-Latin term for the noonday meal was merenda, which suggests the idea of food to be earned before it was enjoyed. So in “Friar Bacon’s Prophesie,” 1604, a poem, it is declared that, in the good old days, he that wrought23 not, till he sweated, was held unworthy of his meat. This reminds one of Abernethy’s maxim24 for the preservation25 of health — to live on sixpence a day, and earn it.
The “Song of the Boar’s Head,” just cited, and printed from the Porkington Ms. in “Reliquiae Antiquae” (ii, 30), refers to larks26 for ladies to pick as part of the second course in a banquet. On special occasions, in the middle ages, after the dessert, hippocras was served, as they have liqueurs to this day on the Continent both after dinner and after the mid-day breakfast.
The writer of “Piers of Fulham” lived to see this fashion of introducing a third meal, and that again split into two for luxury’s sake; for his metrical biographer tells us, that he refused rear-suppers, from a fear of surfeiting28.
I collect that in the time of Henry VIII. the supper was a well-established institution, and that the abuse of postponing29 it to a too advanced hour had crept in; for the writer of a poem of this period especially counsels his readers not to sup late.
Rear-suppers were not only held in private establishments, but in taverns31; and in the early interlude of the “Four Elements,” given in my edition of Dodsley, and originally published about 1519, a very graphic32 and edifying33 scene occurs of a party of roisterers ordering and enjoying an entertainment of this kind. About seventy years later, Robert Greene, the playwright34, fell a victim to a surfeit27 of pickled herrings and Rhenish wine, at some merry gathering35 of his intimates falling under this denomination36. Who will venture to deny that the first person who kept unreasonable37 hours was an author and a poet? Even Shakespeare is not exempt38 from the suspicion of having hastened his end by indulgence with one or two friends in a gay carouse39 of this kind.
The author of the “Description of England” enlightens us somewhat on the sort of kitchen which the middle class and yeomanry of his time deemed fit and sufficient. The merchant or private gentleman had usually from one to three dishes on the table when there were no visitors, and from four to six when there was company. What the yeoman’s every-day diet was Harrison does not express; but at Christmas he had brawn40, pudding and souse, with mustard; beef, mutton, and pork; shred41 pies, goose, pig, capon, turkey, veal42, cheese, apples, etc., with good drink, and a blazing fire in the hall. The farmer’s bill of fare varied according to the season: in Lent, red herrings and salt fish; at Easter, veal and bacon; at Martinmas, salted beef; at Midsummer, fresh beef, peas, and salad; at Michaelmas, fresh herrings and fat mutton; at All Saints’, pork and peas and fish; and at Christmas, the same dainties as our yeoman, with good cheer and pastime.
The modern luncheon or nuncheon was the archaic43 prandium, or under-meat, displaced by the breakfast, and modified in its character by the different distribution of the daily repasts, so that, instead of being the earliest regular meal, like the grand déjeuner of the French, or coming, like our luncheon, between breakfast and dinner, it interposed itself between the noontide dinner and the evening supper. Now, with an increasing proportion of the community, the universal luncheon, postponed44 to a later hour, is the actual dinner; and our under-meal is the afternoon tea.
In those not-wholly-to-be-discommended days, the residue45 of the meal was consumed in the servants’ hall, and the scraps46 bestowed47 on the poor at the gate; and the last part of the business was carried out, not as a matter of chance or caprice, but on as methodical a principle as the payment of a poor-rate. At the servants’ table, besides the waiters and other attendants on the principal board, mentioned by Harrison, sat the master-cook, the pantler, the steward48 or major-domo, the butler, the cellarman, the waferer, and others. It was not till comparatively recent times that the wafery, a special department of the royal kitchen, where the confectionery and pastry49 were prepared, was discontinued.
There was necessarily a very large section of the community in all the large towns, especially in London, which was destitute50 of culinary appliances, and at the same time of any charitable or eleemosynary privileges. A multitude of persons, of both sexes and all ages, gradually developed itself, having no feudal51 ties, but attached to an endless variety of more or less humble52 employments.
How did all these men, women, boys, girls, get their daily food? The answer is, in the public eating-houses. Fitzstephen tells us that in the reign53 of Henry II. (1154-89), besides the wine-vaults and the shops which sold liquors, there was on the banks of the river a public eating-house or cook’s-shop, where, according to the time of year, you could get every kind of victuals54, roasted, boiled, baked, or fried; and even, says he, if a friend should arrive at a citizen’s house, and not care to wait, they go to the shop, where there were viands55 always kept ready to suit every purse and palate, even including venison, sturgeon, and Guinea-fowls. For all classes frequented the City; and before Bardolph’s day noblemen and gentlemen came to Smithfield to buy their horses, as they did to the waterside near the Tower to embark56 for a voyage.
One of the characters in the “Canterbury Tales”— the Cook of London — was, in fact the keeper of a cook’s-shop; and in the Prologue57 to the Tale, with which his name is associated, the charming story of “Gamelin,” the poet makes the Reeve charge his companion with not very creditable behaviour towards his customers. So our host trusts that his relation will be entertaining and good:—
“For many a pasty hast thou let blood,
And many a Jack58 of Dover1 hast thou sold,
That hath been twice hot and twice cold.
Of many a pilgrim hast thou Christ's curse —
For thy parsley fare they yet the worse:
That they have eaten with the stubble goose,
For in thy shop is many a fly loose.”
1 A sole
But these restaurants were not long confined to one locality. From a very early date, owing perhaps to its proximity59 to the Tower and the Thames, East Cheap was famed for its houses of entertainment. The Dagger60 in Cheap is mentioned in “A Hundred Merry Tales,” 1526. The Boar is historical. It was naturally at the East-end, in London proper, that the flood-tide, as it were, of tavern30 life set in, among the seafarers, in the heart of industrial activity; and the anecdotes62 and glimpses which we enjoy show, just what might have been guessed, that these houses often became scenes of riotous63 excess and debauch64. Lydgate’s ballad65 of “London Lickpenny” helps one to imagine what such resorts must have been in the first part of the fifteenth century. It is almost permissible66 to infer that the street contained, in addition to the regular inns, an assortment67 of open counters, where the commodities on sale were cried aloud for the benefit of the passer-by; for he says:—
“When I hied me into East Cheap:
One cries ribs68 of beef, and many a pie:
Pewter pots they clattered69 on a heap;
There was harp70, fife, and sautry.”
The mention of pewter is noteworthy, because the Earl of Northumberland ate his dinner off wood in 1572. Pewter plates had not long been given up when I joined the Inner Temple in 1861.
There is a still more interesting allusion71 in the interlude of the “World and the Child,” 1522, where Folly72 is made to say:—
“Yea, and we shall be right welcome, I dare well say,
In East Cheap for to dine;
And then we will with Lombards at passage play,
And at the Pope's Head sweet wine assay73.”
The places of resort in this rollicking locality could furnish, long before The Boar made the acquaintance of Falstaff, every species of delicacy74 and bonne bouche to their constituents75, and the revelry was apt sometimes to extend to an unseasonable hour. In an early naval76 song we meet with the lines:
“He that will in East Cheap eat a goose so fat,
With harp, pipe, and song,
Must lie in Newgate on a mat,
Be the night never so long.”
And these establishments infallibly contributed their quota77 or more to the prisons in the vicinity.
Houses of refreshment seem, however, to have extended themselves westward79, and to have become tolerably numerous, in the earlier society of the sixteenth century, for Sir Thomas More, in a letter to his friend Dean Colet, speaking of a late walk in Westminster and of the various temptations to expenditure80 and dissipation which the neighbourhood then afforded, remarks: “Whithersoever we cast our eyes, what do we see but victualling-houses, fishmongers, butchers, cooks, pudding-makers, fishers, and fowlers, who minister matter to our bellies81?” This was prior to 1519, the date of Colet’s decease.
There were of course periods of scarcity82 and high prices then as now. It was only a few years later (1524), that Robert Whittinton, in one of his grammatical tracts83 (the “Vulgaria”), includes among his examples:—
“Befe and motton is so dere, that a peny worth of meet wyll scant84 suffyse a boy at a meale.”
The term “cook’s-shop” occurs in the Orders and Ordinances85 devised by the Steward, Dean, and Burgesses of Westminster in 1585, for the better municipal government of that borough86.
The tenth article runs thus:—“Item, that no person or persons that keepeth or that hereafter shall keep any cook’s-shop, shall also keep a common ale-house (except every such person shall be lawfully87 licensed88 thereunto), upon pain to have and receive such punishment, and pay such fine, as by the statute89 in that case is made and provided.”
But while the keepers of restaurants were, as a rule, precluded90 by law from selling ale, the publicans on their side were not supposed to purvey91 refreshment other than their own special commodities. For the fifteenth proviso of these orders is:—
“Item, that no tavern-keeper or inn-keeper shall keep any cook shop upon pain to forfeit92 and pay for every time offending therein 4d.“
The London cooks became famous, and were not only in demand in the City and its immediate93 outskirts94, but were put into requisition when any grand entertainment was given in the country. In the list of expenses incurred95 at the reception of Queen Elizabeth in 1577 by Lord Keeper Bacon at Gorhambury, is an item of ￡12 as wages to the cooks of London. An accredited96 anecdote61 makes Bacon’s father inimical to too lavish97 an outlay98 in the kitchen; but a far more profuse99 housekeeper100 might have been puzzled to dispense101 with special help, where the consumption of viands and the consequent culinary labour and skill required, were so unusually great.
In the Prologue to the “Canterbury Tales,” the Cook of London and his qualifications are thus emblazoned:—
“A Cook thei hadde with hem78 for the nones,
To boylle chyknes, with the mary bones,
And poudre marchaunt tart102, and galyngale;
Wel cowde he knowe a draugte of London ale.
He cowde roste, and sethe, and broille, and frie
Maken mortreux, and wel bake a pie.
But gret harm was it, as it thoughte me,
That on his schyne a mormal had he:
For blankmanger that made he with the beste.”
This description would be hardly worth quoting, if it were not for the source whence it comes, and the names which it presents in common with the “Form of Cury” and other ancient relics103. Chaucer’s Cook was a personage of unusually wide experience, having, in his capacity as the keeper of an eating-house, to cater104 for so many customers of varying tastes and resources.
In the time of Elizabeth, the price at an ordinary for a dinner seems to have been sixpence. It subsequently rose to eightpence; and in the time of George I. the “Vade Mecum for Malt Worms (1720)” speaks of the landlord of The Bell, in Carter Lane, raising his tariff105 to tenpence. In comparison with the cost of a similar meal at present, all these quotations106 strike one as high, when the different value of money is considered. But in 1720, at all events, the customer ate at his own discretion107.
Their vicinity to East Cheap, the great centre of early taverns and cook’s-shops, obtained for Pudding Lane and Pie Corner those savoury designations.
Paris, like London, had its cook’s-shops, where you might eat your dinner on the premises108, or have it brought to your lodging109 in a covered dish by a porte-chape. In the old prints of French kitchen interiors, the cook’s inseparable companion is his ladle, which he used for stirring and serving, and occasionally for dealing110 a refractory111 gar?on de cuisine112 a rap on the head.
The Dictionary of Johannes de Garlandia (early thirteenth century) represents the cooks at Paris as imposing113 on the ignorant and inexperienced badly cooked or even tainted114 meat, which injured their health. These “coquinarii” stood, perhaps, in the same relation to those times as our keepers of restaurants.
He mentions in another place that the cooks washed their utensils115 in hot water, as well as the plates and dishes on which the victuals were served.
Mr. Wright has cited an instance from the romance of “Doon de Mayence,” where the guards of a castle, on a warm summer evening, partook of their meal in a field. Refreshment in the open air was also usual in the hunting season, when a party were at a distance from home; and the garden arbour was occasionally converted to this kind of purpose, when it had assumed its more modern phase. But our picnic was unknown.
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1
noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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bestow
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| v.把…赠与，把…授予；花费 | |
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interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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luncheon
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| n.午宴，午餐，便宴 | |
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prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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subscription
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| n.预订，预订费，亲笔签名，调配法，下标（处方） | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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refreshment
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| n.恢复，精神爽快，提神之事物；（复数）refreshments:点心，茶点 | |
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glossary
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| n.注释词表；术语汇编 | |
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precursors
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| n.先驱( precursor的名词复数 )；先行者；先兆；初期形式 | |
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13
luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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collation
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| n.便餐；整理 | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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susceptible
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| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
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17
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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18
extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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20
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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specified
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| adj.特定的 | |
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sumptuous
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| adj.豪华的，奢侈的，华丽的 | |
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23
wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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24
maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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25
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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26
larks
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| n.百灵科鸟（尤指云雀）( lark的名词复数 )；一大早就起床；鸡鸣即起；（因太费力而不想干时说）算了v.百灵科鸟（尤指云雀）( lark的第三人称单数 )；一大早就起床；鸡鸣即起；（因太费力而不想干时说）算了 | |
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27
surfeit
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| v.使饮食过度；n.(食物)过量，过度 | |
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surfeiting
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| v.吃得过多( surfeit的现在分词 )；由于过量而厌腻 | |
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29
postponing
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| v.延期，推迟( postpone的现在分词 ) | |
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30
tavern
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| n.小旅馆，客栈；小酒店 | |
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31
taverns
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| n.小旅馆，客栈，酒馆( tavern的名词复数 ) | |
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32
graphic
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| adj.生动的，形象的，绘画的，文字的，图表的 | |
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33
edifying
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| adj.有教训意味的，教训性的，有益的v.开导，启发( edify的现在分词 ) | |
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34
playwright
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| n.剧作家，编写剧本的人 | |
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35
gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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36
denomination
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| n.命名，取名，(度量衡、货币等的)单位 | |
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37
unreasonable
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| adj.不讲道理的，不合情理的，过度的 | |
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38
exempt
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| adj.免除的；v.使免除；n.免税者，被免除义务者 | |
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39
carouse
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| v.狂欢；痛饮；n.狂饮的宴会 | |
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40
brawn
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| n.体力 | |
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41
shred
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| v.撕成碎片，变成碎片；n.碎布条，细片，些少 | |
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42
veal
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| n.小牛肉 | |
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43
archaic
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| adj.(语言、词汇等)古代的，已不通用的 | |
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44
postponed
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| vt.& vi.延期，缓办，（使）延迟vt.把…放在次要地位；[语]把…放在后面（或句尾）vi.（疟疾等）延缓发作（或复发） | |
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45
residue
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| n.残余，剩余，残渣 | |
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scraps
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| 油渣 | |
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47
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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48
steward
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| n.乘务员，服务员；看管人；膳食管理员 | |
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49
pastry
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| n.油酥面团，酥皮糕点 | |
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50
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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51
feudal
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| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
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52
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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53
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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54
victuals
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| n.食物；食品 | |
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55
viands
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| n.食品，食物 | |
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56
embark
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| vi.乘船，着手，从事，上飞机 | |
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57
prologue
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| n.开场白，序言；开端，序幕 | |
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58
jack
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| n.插座，千斤顶，男人；v.抬起，提醒，扛举；n.（Jake）杰克 | |
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59
proximity
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| n.接近，邻近 | |
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dagger
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| n.匕首，短剑，剑号 | |
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anecdote
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| n.轶事，趣闻，短故事 | |
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anecdotes
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| n.掌故，趣闻，轶事( anecdote的名词复数 ) | |
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riotous
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| adj.骚乱的；狂欢的 | |
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debauch
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| v.使堕落，放纵 | |
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ballad
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| n.歌谣，民谣，流行爱情歌曲 | |
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66
permissible
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| adj.可允许的，许可的 | |
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67
assortment
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| n.分类，各色俱备之物，聚集 | |
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68
ribs
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| n.肋骨( rib的名词复数 )；（船或屋顶等的）肋拱；肋骨状的东西；（织物的）凸条花纹 | |
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clattered
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| 发出咔哒声（clatter的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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70
harp
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| n.竖琴；天琴座 | |
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71
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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72
folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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assay
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| n.试验，测定 | |
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delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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constituents
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| n.选民( constituent的名词复数 )；成分；构成部分；要素 | |
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naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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quota
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| n.（生产、进出口等的）配额，（移民的）限额 | |
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hem
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| n.贴边，镶边；vt.缝贴边；(in)包围，限制 | |
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westward
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| n.西方，西部；adj.西方的，向西的；adv.向西 | |
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expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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81
bellies
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| n.肚子( belly的名词复数 )；腹部；（物体的）圆形或凸起部份；腹部…形的 | |
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82
scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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83
tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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scant
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| adj.不充分的，不足的；v.减缩，限制，忽略 | |
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ordinances
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| n.条例，法令( ordinance的名词复数 ) | |
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borough
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| n.享有自治权的市镇；(英)自治市镇 | |
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lawfully
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| adv.守法地，合法地；合理地 | |
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licensed
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| adj.得到许可的v.许可，颁发执照(license的过去式和过去分词) | |
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statute
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| n.成文法，法令，法规；章程，规则，条例 | |
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precluded
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| v.阻止( preclude的过去式和过去分词 )；排除；妨碍；使…行不通 | |
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purvey
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| v.（大量）供给，供应 | |
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forfeit
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| vt.丧失；n.罚金，罚款，没收物 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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outskirts
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| n.郊外，郊区 | |
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incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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accredited
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| adj.可接受的；可信任的；公认的；质量合格的v.相信( accredit的过去式和过去分词 )；委托；委任；把…归结于 | |
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lavish
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| adj.无节制的；浪费的；vt.慷慨地给予，挥霍 | |
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outlay
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| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
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profuse
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| adj.很多的，大量的，极其丰富的 | |
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100
housekeeper
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| n.管理家务的主妇，女管家 | |
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dispense
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| vt.分配，分发；配(药)，发(药)；实施 | |
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tart
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| adj.酸的；尖酸的，刻薄的；n.果馅饼；淫妇 | |
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103
relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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cater
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| vi.(for/to)满足，迎合；(for)提供饮食及服务 | |
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tariff
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| n.关税，税率；(旅馆、饭店等)价目表，收费表 | |
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quotations
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| n.引用( quotation的名词复数 )；[商业]行情（报告）；（货物或股票的）市价；时价 | |
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discretion
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| n.谨慎；随意处理 | |
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108
premises
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| n.建筑物，房屋 | |
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109
lodging
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| n.寄宿，住所；(大学生的)校外宿舍 | |
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110
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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111
refractory
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| adj.倔强的，难驾驭的 | |
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112
cuisine
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| n.烹调，烹饪法 | |
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113
imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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114
tainted
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| adj.腐坏的；污染的；沾污的；感染的v.使变质( taint的过去式和过去分词 )；使污染；败坏；被污染，腐坏，败坏 | |
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utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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