1 Nouvelles francaises en prose du xiii ieme siecle, par2 MM. L. Moland et C. D’Hericault. (Paris: Janet, 1856.)
I.
Almost all literary roads lead back to Greece. Obscure as still remains5 the origin of that genre6 of romance to which the tales before us belong, there is little doubt that their models, if not their originals, were once extant at Constantinople. Though in no single instance has the Greek original been discovered of any of these romances, the mere7 name of their heroes would be in most cases sufficient to prove their Hellenic or Byzantine origin. Heracles, Athis, Porphirias, Parthenopeus, Hippomedon, Protesilaus, Cliges, Cleomades, Clarus, Berinus — names such as these can come but from one quarter of Europe, and it is as easy to guess how and when they came as whence. The first two crusades brought the flower of European chivalry8 to Constantinople and restored that spiritual union between Eastern and Western Christendom that had been interrupted by the great schism9 of the Greek and Roman Churches. The crusaders came mostly from the Lands of Romance. Permanent bonds of culture began to be formed between the extreme East and the extreme West of Europe by intermarriage, by commerce, by the admission of the nobles of Byzantium within the orders of chivalry. These ties went on increasing throughout the twelfth century till they culminated10 at its close with the foundation of the Latin kingdom of Constantinople. In European literature these historic events are represented by the class of romances represented in this volume, which all trace back to versions in verse of the twelfth century, though they were done into prose somewhere in Picardy during the course of the next century. Daphnis and Chloe, one might say, had revived after a sleep of 700 years, and donned the garb12 and spoke13 the tongue of Romance.
II
The very first of our tales illustrates14 admirably the general course of their history. It is, in effect, a folk etymology15 of the name of the great capital of the Eastern Empire. Constantinople, so runs the tale, received that name instead of Byzantium, because of the remarkable16 career of one of its former rulers, Coustans. M. Wesselovsky has published in Romania (vi. 1. seq.) the Dit de l’empereur Constant, the verse original of the story before us, and in this occur the lines —
Pour ce que si nobles estoit Et que nobles oevres faisoit L’appielloient Constant le noble Et pour cou ot Constantinnoble Li cytes de Bissence a non.
From which it would appear that we are mistaken in thinking of the capital of Turkey as the “City of Constantine,” whereas it is rather Constant the Noble, and the name Coustant is further explained as “costing” too much. Constantinople, therefore, is the city that costs too much, according to the prophetic etymology of the folk.
The only historic personage with whom this Coustant can be identified is Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine the Great and the husband of St. Helena, to whom legend ascribes the discovery of the Holy Rood. But the Coustans of our story never lived or ruled on land or sea, and his predecessor17, Muselinus, is altogether unknown to Byzantine annals, while their interlaced history reads more like a page of the Arabian Nights than of Gibbon.
But such a legend could scarcely have arisen elsewhere than at Constantinople. It is one of those fables18 that the disinherited folk have at all times invented to solace19 themselves for their disinherison. The sudden and fated rise of one of the folk to the heights of power occurs sufficiently20 often to afford material for the day dreams of ambitious youth. There is even a popular tendency to attribute a lowly origin to all favourites of fortune, as witness the legends that have grown up about the early careers of Beckett, Whittington, Wolsey, none of whom was as ill-born as popular tradition asserts. Yet such legends invariably grow up in the country of their heroes, which is the only one sufficiently interested in their career, so far as the common people are concerned. Hence the very nature of our story would cause us to locate its origin on the banks of the Bosphorus.
But once originated in this manner, there is no limit to the travels it may take. Curiously21 enough, the very legend before us in all its details has found a home among the English peasantry. The Rev11. S. Baring-Gould collected in Yorkshire a story which he contributed to Henderson’s Folklore22 of the Northern Counties, and entitled The Fish and the Ring. 2 In this legend a girl comes as the unwelcome sixth of the family of a very poor man who lived under the shadow of York Minster. A Knight23, riding by on the day of her birth, discovers, by consultation24 of the Book of Fate, that she was destined25 to marry his son. He offers to adopt her, and throws her into the River Ouse. A fisherman saves her, and she is again discovered after many years by the Knight, who learns what Fate has still in store for his son. He sends her to his brother at Scarborough with a fatal letter, ordering him to put her to death. But on the way she is seized by a band of robbers, who read the letter and replace it by one ordering the Baron26’s son to be married to her immediately on her arrival.
2 I have given a version of it in my English Fairy Tales, and there is a ballad28 on the subject entitled The Cruel Knight.
When the Baron discovers that he has not been able to evade29 the decree of fate he still persists in his persecution30, and taking a ring from his finger throws it into the sea, saying that the girl shall never live with his son till she can show him that ring. She wanders about and becomes a scullery-maid at a great castle, and one day when the Baron is dining at the castle, while cleaning a great fish she finds his ring, and all ends happily.
Now on the east wall of the chancel of Stepney Church there is a monument erected31 to Dame32 Rebecca Berry, wife of Thomas Elton, of Stratford, Bow, and relict of Sir John Berry, 1696. The arms on the monument are thus blazoned33 by heralds35 . . . . “Paly of six on a bend three mullets (Elton) impaling36 a fish, and in the dexter chief point an annulet between two bends wavy37.” The reference in the impalement38 of the blazon34 is obvious. A local tradition confidently identifies Dame Berry as the heroine of the Yorkshire legend, though of course it is ignorant of her connection with the etymology of Constantinople.
Now this tale, or the first half of it, is but a Yorkshire variant39 of one spread throughout Europe. The opening of the twenty-ninth story of the collection of the Brothers Grimm, and entitled The Devil with the Three Golden Hairs, is exactly the same, and in their Notes they give references to many similar European folk-tales. The story is found in Modern Greece (Von Hahn, No. XX.), and it is, therefore, possible that the story of King Coustans is the adaptation of a Greek folk-tale for the purposes of a Folk Etymology. But the letter, “On delivery, please kill bearer,” is scarcely likely to have occurred twice to the popular imagination, and one is almost brought to the conclusion that the romance before us was itself either directly or indirectly40 the source of all the European Folk-tales in which the letter “To kill bearer” occurs. And as we have before traced the Romance back to Constantinople, one is further tempted41 to trace back the Letter itself to a reminiscence of Homer’s [Greek text which cannot be reproduced].
I have said above that no Greek original of any of these Romances has hitherto been discovered. But in the case of King Coustans we can at any rate get within appreciable42 distance of it. As recently as 1895 a learned Teuton, Dr. Ernst Kuhn, pointed43 out, appropriately enough in the Byzantinische Zeitschrift, the existence of an Ethiopic and of an Arabic version of the legend. He found in one of Mr. Quaritch’s catalogues a description of an illuminated44 Ethiopic MS., once belonging to King Theodore of Magdala fame, which from the account given of several of the illustrations he was enabled to identify as the story of “The Man born to be King.” His name in the Ethiopic version is Thalassion, or Ethiopic words to that effect, and the Greek provenance45 of the story is thereby46 established. Dr. Kuhn was also successful in finding an Arabic version done by a Coptic Christian47. In both these versions the story is told as a miracle due to the interference of the Angel Michael; and it is a curious coincidence that in Mr. Morris’ poetical48 version of our story in the “Earthly Paradise” he calls his hero Michael. Unless some steps are taken to prevent the misunderstanding, it is probable that some Teutonic investigator49 of the next century will, on the strength of this identity of names, bring Mr. Morris in guilty of a knowledge of Ethiopic.
But for the name of the hero one might have suspected these Oriental versions of being derived50, not from a Greek, but from an Indian original. Mr. Tawney has described a variant found in the Kathakosa 3
3 See Clouston, Book of Sindibad, p. 279.
which resembles our tale much more closely than any of the European folk-tales in the interesting point that the predestined bride herself finds the fatal letter and makes the satisfactory substitution. In the Indian tale this is done with considerable ingenuity51 and vraisemblance. The girl’s name is Visha, and the operative clause of the fatal letter is:
“Before this man has washed his feet, do thou with speed
Give him poison (visham), and free my heart from care.”
The lady thinks (or wishes) that her father is a bad orthographist, and corrects his spelling by omitting the final m, so that the letter reads “Give him Visha,” with results more satisfactory to the young lady than to her father. This variant is so very close to our tale, while the letter incident in it is so much more naturally developed than in the romance that one might almost suspect it of having been the original. But we must know more about the Kathakosa and about the communication between Byzantium and India before we can decisively determine which came first.
III
Amis and Amil were the David and Jonathan, the Orestes and Pylades, of the mediaeval world. Dr. Hofmann, who has edited the earliest French verse account of the Legend, enumerates52 nearly thirty other versions of it in almost all the tongues of Western and Northern Europe, not to mention various versions which have crept into different collections of the Lives of the Saints. For their peerless friendship raised them to the ranks of the martyrs53, at any rate, at Mortara and Novara, where, according to the Legend, they died. The earliest of all these forms is a set of Latin Hexameters by one Radulfus Tortarius, born at Fleury, 1063, lived in Normandy, and died some time after 1122. It was, therefore, possible that the story had come back with the first crusaders, and the Grimms attribute to it a Greek original. But in its earliest as well as in its present form, it is definitely located on Romance soil, while the names of the heroes are clearly Latin (Amicus and AEmilius). It was, however, only at a later stage that the story was affiliated54 to the Epic55 Cycle of Charlemagne. On the face of it there is clearly stamped the impress of popular tradition. Heads are not so easily replaced, except by a freak of the Folk imagination. It is probably for this reason that M. Gaston Paris attributes an Oriental origin to the latter part of the tale, and for the same reason the Benedictine Fathers have had serious doubts about admitting it into the Acta Sanctorum. On the other hand, the editors of the French text, the translation of which we have before us, go so far as to conjecture56 that there is a historic germ for the whole Legend in certain incidents of the War of Charlemagne against Didier. But as the whole connection of the Legend with the Charlemagne Cycle is late, we need not attribute much importance to, indeed, we may at once dismiss their conjecture.
These disputes of the pundits57 cannot destroy the charm of the Legend. Never, even in antiquity58, have the claims of friendship been urged with such a passionate59 emphasis. The very resemblance of the two heroes is symbolic60 of their similarity of character; the very name of one of them is Friend pure and simple. The world is well lost for friendship’s sake on the one side, on the other nearest and dearest are willingly and literally61 sacrificed on the altar of friendship. One of the most charming of the Fioretti tells how St. Francis overcame in himself the mediaeval dread62 at the touch of a leper, and washed and tended one of the poor unfortunates. He was but following the example of Amil, who was not deterred63 by the dreaded64 sound of the “tartavelle”— the clapper or rattle65 which announced the approach of the leper 4 — from tending his friend.
4 Figured in M. Ulysse Robert, Signes d’infamie au moyen age, Paris, 1891. Lovers of Stevenson will remember the effective use made of this in The Black Arrow.
Here again romance has points of contact with the folk tale. The end of the Grimms’ tale of Faithful John is clearly the same as that of Amis and Amile. 5 Once more we are led to believe in some dependence66 of the Folk-Tale on Romance, or, vice67 versa, since an incident like that of resuscitation68 by the sacrifice of a child is not likely to occur independently to two different tellers69 of tales. The tale also contains the curious incident of the unsheathed sword in bed, which, both in romances and folk-tales, is regarded as a complete bar to any divorce court proceedings70. It is probable that the sword was considered as a living person, so that the principle publico was applied71, and the sword was regarded as a kind of chaperon. 6 It is noteworthy that the incident occurs in Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp, which is a late interpolation into the Arabian Nights, and may be due there to European influence. But another incident in the romance suggests that it was derived from a folk-tale rather than the reverse. The two bowls of wood given to the heroes at baptism are clearly a modification72 of that familiar incident in folk-tales, where one of a pair leaves with the other a “Lifetoken” 7 which will sympathetically indicate his state of health. As this has been considerably73 attenuated74 in our romance, we are led to the conclusion that it is itself an adaptation of a folk- tale.
5 It has been suggested that the names of our heroes have given rise to the proverbial saying: “A miss (Amis) is as good as a mile (Amile),” but notwithstanding the high authority from which the suggestion emanates75, it is little more than a pun.
6 For occurrences of this incident in sagas76, etc., see Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthumer, 168-70; in folk-tales, Dasent, Tales from the Norse, cxxxiv.-v., n. xviii
7 Mr. Hartland has studied the “Lifetoken” in the eighth chapter of his elaborate treatise77 on the Legend of Perseus.
IV
The tale of King Florus — the gem78 of the book — recalls the early part of Shakespeare’s Cymbeline and the bet about a wife’s virtue79, which forms the subject of many romances, not a few folk-tales, and at least one folk-song. The Romance of the Violet, by Gerbert de Montruil, circa 1225, derives80 its name from the mother’s mark of the heroine, which causes her husband to lose his bet. This was probably the source of Boccaccio’s novel (ii. 9), from which Shakespeare’s more immediately grew. The Gaelic version of this incident, collected by Campbell (The Chest, No. ii.), is clearly not of folk origin, but derived directly or indirectly from Boccaccio, in whom alone the Chest is found. Yet it is curious that, practically, the same story as the Romance of the Violet is found among folk-songs in modern Greece and in Modern Scotland. In Passow’s collection of Romaic Folk Songs there is one entitled Maurianos and the King, which is in substance our story; and it is probably the existence of this folk-song which causes M. Gaston Paris to place our tale among the romances derived from Byzantium. Yet Motherwell in his Minstrelsy has a ballad entitled Reedisdale and Wise William, which has the bet as its motive81. Here again, then, we have a connection between our romance and the story-store of European folk, and at the same time some slight link with Byzantium.
V
The tale of “Oversea” has immediate27 connection with the Crusades, since its heroine is represented to be no other than the great grandmother of Saladin. But her adventures resemble those of Boccaccio’s Princess of Babylon (ii. 7), who was herself taken from one of the Greek romances by Xenophon of Ephesus. Here again, then, we can trace back to Greek influence reaching Western Europe in the twelfth century through the medium of the Crusades. But the tale finds no echo among the folk, so far as I am aware, and is thus purely82 and simply a romance of adventure.
This, however, is not the only story connected with the Crusades in which the Soudan loves a lady of the Franks. Saladin is credited by the chatty Chronicle of Rheims with having gained the love of Eleanor, wife of Louis VII., when they were in Palestine on the Second Crusade. As Saladin did not ascend83 the throne till twenty years later, chronology is enabled to clear his memory of this piece of scandal. But its existence chimes in with such relations between Moslem84 and Christian as is represented in our story, which were clearly not regarded at the time with any particular aversion by the folk; they agree with Cardinal85 Mazarin on this point.
VI
So much for the origin of our tales. Yet who cares for origins nowadays? We are all democrats86 now, and a tale, like a man, is welcomed for its merits and not for its pedigree. Yet even democracy must own, that pedigree often leaves its trace in style and manner, and certainly the tales before us owe some of their charm to their lineage. “Out of Byzantium by Old France” is a good strain by which to produce thoroughbred romance.
Certainly we breathe the very air of romance in these stories. There is none of your modern priggish care for the state of your soul. Men take rank according to their might, women are valued for their beauty alone. Adventures are to the adventurous87, and the world is full of them. Every place but that in which one is born is equally strange and wondrous88. Once beyond the bounds of the city walls and none knows what may happen. We have stepped forth89 into the Land of Faerie, but at least we are in the open air.
Mr. Pater seems to regard our stories as being a premonition of the freedom and gaiety of the Renaissance90 rather than as especially characteristic of the times of Romance. All that one need remark upon such misconception is that it only proves that Mr. Pater knew less of Romance Literature than he did of his favourite subject. The freshness, the gaiety, the direct outlook into life are peculiar91 neither to Romance nor Renaissance; their real source was the esprit Gaulois. But the unquestioning, if somewhat external, piety92, the immutability93 of the caste system, the spirit of adventure, the frankly94 physical love of woman, the large childlike wonder, these are of the essence of Romance, and they are fully95 represented in the tales before us. Wonder and reverence96, are not these the parents of Romance? Intelligent curiosity and intellectual doubt — those are what the Renaissance brought. Without indulging in invidious comparisons between the relative value of these gifts, I would turn back to our stories with the remark that much of the wonder which they exhibit is due to the vague localisation which runs through them. Rome, Paris, Byzantium, form spots of light on the mediaeval map, but all between is in the dim obscure where anything may occur, and the brave man moves about with his life in his hands.
We thus obtain that absence or localisation which helps to give the characteristic tone to mediaeval romance. Events happen in a sort of sublime97 No Man’s Land. They happen, as it were, at the root of the mountains, on the glittering plain, and in short, we get news from Nowhere. It seems, therefore, peculiarly appropriate that they should be done into English in the same style and by the same hand that has already written the annals of those countries of romance. Writing here, in front of Mr. Morris’s versions, I am speaking, as it were, before his face, and must not say all that I should like in praise of the style in which he has clothed them, and of its appropriateness for its present purpose. I should merely like to recall the fact that it was used by him in his versions of the Sagas as long ago as 1869. Since then it has been adopted by all who desire to give an appropriate English dress to their versions of classic or mediaeval masterpieces of a romantic character. We may take it, I think, that this style has established itself as the only one suitable for a romantic version, and who shall use it with ease and grace if not its original inventor?
If their style suits Mr. Morris, there is little doubt that their subject is equally congenial. I cannot claim to be in his confidence on the point, but it is not difficult, I fancy, to guess what has attracted him to them. Nearly all of them, we have seen, are on the borderland between folk-tale and romance. It is tales such as these that Mr. Morris wishes to see told in tapestry98 on the walls of the Moot-Hall of the Hammersmith of Nowhere. It was by tales such as these that he first won a hearing from all lovers of English literature. The story of Jason is but a Greek setting of a folk-tale known among the Gaels as the Battle of the Birds, and in Norse as the Master Maid. Many of the tales which the travellers told one another in the Earthly Paradise, such as The Man Born to be King (itself derived from the first of our stories), The Land East of the Sun and West of the Moon, and The Ring given to Venus, are, on the face of them, folk-tales. Need I give any stronger recommendation of this book to English readers than to ask them to regard it as a sort of outhouse to that goodly fabric99 so appropriately known to us all as The Earthly Paradise?
JOSEPH JACOBS.
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crimson
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par
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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inverse
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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genre
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| n.(文学、艺术等的)类型，体裁，风格 | |
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mere
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chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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schism
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culminated
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| v.达到极点( culminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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rev
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garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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illustrates
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的第三人称单数 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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etymology
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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predecessor
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fables
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solace
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sufficiently
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curiously
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folklore
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knight
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consultation
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destined
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baron
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immediate
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ballad
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evade
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persecution
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ERECTED
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dame
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blazoned
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blazon
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heralds
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impaling
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wavy
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impalement
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variant
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indirectly
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tempted
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appreciable
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| adj.明显的，可见的，可估量的，可觉察的 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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illuminated
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| adj.被照明的；受启迪的 | |
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provenance
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| n.出处；起源 | |
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thereby
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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poetical
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| adj.似诗人的；诗一般的；韵文的；富有诗意的 | |
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investigator
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| n.研究者，调查者，审查者 | |
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50
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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51
ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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enumerates
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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martyrs
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| n.martyr的复数形式；烈士( martyr的名词复数 )；殉道者；殉教者；乞怜者（向人诉苦以博取同情） | |
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affiliated
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| adj. 附属的, 有关连的 | |
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epic
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| n.史诗，叙事诗；adj.史诗般的，壮丽的 | |
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conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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pundits
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| n.某一学科的权威，专家( pundit的名词复数 ) | |
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58
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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symbolic
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| adj.象征性的，符号的，象征主义的 | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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deterred
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| v.阻止，制止( deter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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dreaded
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| adj.令人畏惧的；害怕的v.害怕，恐惧，担心( dread的过去式和过去分词) | |
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rattle
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| v.飞奔，碰响；激怒；n.碰撞声；拨浪鼓 | |
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dependence
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| n.依靠，依赖；信任，信赖；隶属 | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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resuscitation
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| n.复活 | |
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tellers
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| n.（银行）出纳员( teller的名词复数 )；（投票时的）计票员；讲故事等的人；讲述者 | |
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proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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modification
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| n.修改，改进，缓和，减轻 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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attenuated
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| v.（使）变细( attenuate的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）变薄；（使）变小；减弱 | |
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emanates
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| v.从…处传出，传出( emanate的第三人称单数 )；产生，表现，显示 | |
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sagas
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| n.萨迦（尤指古代挪威或冰岛讲述冒险经历和英雄业绩的长篇故事）( saga的名词复数 )；（讲述许多年间发生的事情的）长篇故事；一连串的事件（或经历）；一连串经历的讲述（或记述） | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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gem
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| n.宝石，珠宝；受爱戴的人 [同]jewel | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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derives
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| v.得到( derive的第三人称单数 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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83
ascend
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| vi.渐渐上升，升高；vt.攀登，登上 | |
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Moslem
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| n.回教徒，穆罕默德信徒；adj.回教徒的，回教的 | |
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cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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democrats
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| n.民主主义者，民主人士( democrat的名词复数 ) | |
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adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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wondrous
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| adj.令人惊奇的，奇妙的；adv.惊人地；异乎寻常地；令人惊叹地 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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93
immutability
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| n.不变(性) | |
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frankly
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| adv.坦白地，直率地；坦率地说 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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96
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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97
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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98
tapestry
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| n.挂毯，丰富多采的画面 | |
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fabric
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| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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