In the present state of society it appears necessary to go back to first principles in search of the most simple truths, and to dispute with some prevailing1 prejudice every inch of ground. To clear my way, I must be allowed to ask some plain questions, and the answers will probably appear as unequivocal as the axioms on which reasoning is built; though, when entangled2 with various motives3 of action, they are formally contradicted, either by the words or conduct of men.
In what does man’s pre-eminence4 over the brute5 creation consist? The answer is as clear as that a half is less than the whole; in Reason.
What acquirement exalts7 one being above another? Virtue8; we spontaneously reply.
For what purpose were the passions implanted? That man by struggling with them might attain9 a degree of knowledge denied to the brutes10; whispers Experience.
Consequently the perfection of our nature and capability11 of happiness, must be estimated by the degree of reason, virtue, and knowledge, that distinguish the individual, and direct the laws which bind12 society: and that from the exercise of reason, knowledge and virtue naturally flow, is equally undeniable, if mankind be viewed collectively.
The rights and duties of man thus simplified, it seems almost impertinent to attempt to illustrate13 truths that appear so incontrovertible; yet such deeply rooted prejudices have clouded reason, and such spurious qualities have assumed the name of virtues14, that it is necessary to pursue the course of reason as it has been perplexed15 and involved in error, by various adventitious16 circumstances, comparing the simple axiom with casual deviations18.
Men, in general, seem to employ their reason to justify19 prejudices, which they have imbibed20, they can scarcely trace how, rather than to root them out. The mind must be strong that resolutely21 forms its own principles; for a kind of intellectual cowardice22 prevails which makes many men shrink from the task, or only do it by halves. Yet the imperfect conclusions thus drawn23, are frequently very plausible24, because they are built on partial experience, on just, though narrow, views.
Going back to first principles, vice25 skulks26, with all its native deformity, from close investigation27; but a set of shallow reasoners are always exclaiming that these arguments prove too much, and that a measure rotten at the core may be expedient28. Thus expediency29 is continually contrasted with simple principles, till truth is lost in a mist of words, virtue, in forms, and knowledge rendered a sounding nothing, by the specious30 prejudices that assume its name.
That the society is formed in the wisest manner, whose constitution is founded on the nature of man, strikes, in the abstract, every thinking being so forcibly, that it looks like presumption31 to endeavour to bring forward proofs; though proof must be brought, or the strong hold of prescription32 will never be forced by reason; yet to urge prescription as an argument to justify the depriving men (or women) of their natural rights, is one of the absurd sophisms which daily insult common sense.
The civilization of the bulk of the people of Europe is very partial; nay33, it may be made a question, whether they have acquired any virtues in exchange for innocence34, equivalent to the misery35 produced by the vices36 that have been plastered over unsightly ignorance, and the freedom which has been bartered37 for splendid slavery. The desire of dazzling by riches, the most certain pre-eminence that man can obtain, the pleasure of commanding flattering sycophants38, and many other complicated low calculations of doting39 self-love, have all contributed to overwhelm the mass of mankind, and make liberty a convenient handle for mock patriotism40. For whilst rank and titles are held of the utmost importance, before which Genius “must hide its diminished head,” it is, with a few exceptions, very unfortunate for a nation when a man of abilities, without rank or property, pushes himself forward to notice. — Alas41! what unheard of misery have thousands suffered to purchase a cardinal’s hat for an intriguing42 obscure adventurer, who longed to be ranked with princes, or lord it over them by seizing the triple crown!
Such, indeed, has been the wretchedness that has flowed from hereditary43 honours, riches, and monarchy44, that men of lively sensibility have almost uttered blasphemy45 in order to justify the dispensations of providence46. Man has been held out as independent of his power who made him, or as a lawless planet darting47 from its orbit to steal the celestial48 fire of reason; and the vengeance49 of heaven, lurking50 in the subtile flame, like Pandora’s pent up mischiefs52, sufficiently53 punished his temerity54, by introducing evil into the world.
Impressed by this view of the misery and disorder55 which pervaded56 society, and fatigued57 with jostling against artificial fools, Rousseau became enamoured of solitude58, and, being at the same time an optimist59, he labours with uncommon60 eloquence61 to prove that man was naturally a solitary62 animal. Misled by his respect for the goodness of God, who certainly — for what man of sense and feeling can doubt it! — gave life only to communicate happiness, he considers evil as positive, and the work of man; not aware that he was exalting63 one attribute at the expence of another, equally necessary to divine perfection.
Reared on a false hypothesis his arguments in favour of a state of nature are plausible, but unsound. I say unsound; for to assert that a state of nature is preferable to civilization, in all its possible perfection, is, in other words, to arraign64 supreme65 wisdom; and the paradoxical exclamation66, that God has made all things right, and that error has been introduced by the creature, whom he formed, knowing what he formed, is as unphilosophical as impious.
When that wise Being who created us and placed us here, saw the fair idea, he willed, by allowing it to be so, that the passions should unfold our reason, because he could see that present evil would produce future good. Could the helpless creature whom he called from nothing break loose from his providence, and boldly learn to know good by practising evil, without his permission? No. — How could that energetic advocate for immortality67 argue so inconsistently? Had mankind remained for ever in the brutal68 state of nature, which even his magic pen cannot paint as a state in which a single virtue took root, it would have been clear, though not to the sensitive unreflecting wanderer, that man was born to run the circle of life and death, and adorn69 God’s garden for some purpose which could not easily be reconciled with his attributes.
But if, to crown the whole, there were to be rational creatures produced, allowed to rise in excellence70 by the exercise of powers implanted for that purpose; if benignity71 itself thought fit to call into existence a creature above the brutes,3 who could think and improve himself, why should that inestimable gift, for a gift it was, if man was so created as to have a capacity to rise above the state in which sensation produced brutal ease, be called, in direct terms, a curse? A curse it might be reckoned, if the whole of our existence were bounded by our continuance in this world; for why should the gracious fountain of life give us passions, and the power of reflecting, only to imbitter our days and inspire us with mistaken notions of dignity? Why should he lead us from love of ourselves to the sublime72 emotions which the discovery of his wisdom and goodness excites, if these feelings were not set in motion to improve our nature, of which they make a part,4 and render us capable of enjoying a more godlike portion of happiness? Firmly persuaded that no evil exists in the world that God did not design to take place, I build my belief on the perfection of God.
3 Contrary to the opinion of anatomists, who argue by analogy from the formation of the teeth, stomach, and intestines74, Rousseau will not allow a man to be a carnivorous animal. And, carried away from nature by a love of system, he disputes whether man be a gregarious75 animal, though the long and helpless state of infancy76 seems to point him out as particularly impelled77 to pair, the first step towards herding78.
4 What would you say to a mechanic whom you had desired to make a watch to point out the hour of the day, if, to show his ingenuity79, he added wheels to make it a repeater, &c. that perplexed the simple mechanism80; should he urge, to excuse himself — had you not touched a certain spring, you would have known nothing of the matter, and that he should have amused himself by making an experiment without doing you any harm: would you not retort fairly upon him, by insisting that if he had not added those needless wheels and springs, the accident could not have happened?
Rousseau exerts himself to prove that all was right originally: a crowd of authors that all is now right: and I, that all will be right.
But, true to his first position, next to a state of nature, Rousseau celebrates barbarism, and apostrophizing the shade of Fabricius, he forgets that, in conquering the world, the Romans never dreamed of establishing their own liberty on a firm basis, or of extending the reign81 of virtue. Eager to support his system, he stigmatizes82, as vicious, every effort of genius; and, uttering the apotheosis83 of savage84 virtues, he exalts those to demi-gods, who were scarcely human — the brutal Spartans85, who, in defiance86 of justice and gratitude87, sacrificed, in cold blood, the slaves who had shewn themselves heroes to rescue their oppressors.
Disgusted with artificial manners and virtues, the citizen of Geneva, instead of properly sifting88 the subject, threw away the wheat with the chaff89, without waiting to inquire whether the evils which his ardent90 soul turned from indignantly, were the consequence of civilization or the vestiges91 of barbarism. He saw vice tramping on virtue, and the semblance92 of goodness taking place of the reality; he saw talents bent93 by power to sinister94 purposes, and never thought of tracing the gigantic mischief51 up to arbitrary power, up to the hereditary distinctions that clash with the mental superiority that naturally raises a man above his fellows. He did not perceive that regal power, in a few generations, introduces idiotism into the noble stem, and holds out baits to render thousands idle and vicious.
Nothing can set the regal character in a more contemptible95 point of view, than the various crimes that have elevated men to the supreme dignity. — Vile97 intrigues98, unnatural99 crimes, and every vice that degrades our nature, have been the steps to this distinguished100 eminence; yet millions of men have supinely allowed the nerveless limbs of the posterity101 of such rapacious102 prowlers to rest quietly on their ensanguined thrones.5
5 Could there be a greater insult offered to the rights of man than the beds of justice in France, when an infant was made the organ of the detestable Dubois!
What but a pestilential vapour can hover103 over society when its chief director is only instructed in the invention of crimes, or the stupid routine of childish ceremonies? Will men never be wise? — will they never cease to expect corn from tares104, and figs105 from thistles?
It is impossible for any man, when the most favourable106 circumstances concur107, to acquire sufficient knowledge and strength of mind to discharge the duties of a king, entrusted108 with uncontrouled power; how then must they be violated when his very elevation109 is an insuperable bar to the attainment110 of either wisdom or virtue; when all the feelings of a man are stifled111 by flattery, and reflection shut out by pleasure! Surely it is madness to make the fate of thousands depend on the caprice of a weak fellow creature, whose very station sinks him necessarily below the meanest of his subjects! But one power should not be thrown down to exalt6 another — for all power inebriates112 weak man; and its abuse proves that the more equality there is established among men, the more virtue and happiness will reign in society. But this and any similar maxim113 deduced from simple reason, raises an outcry — the church or the state is in danger, if faith in the wisdom of antiquity114 is not implicit115; and they who, roused by the sight of human calamity116, dare to attack human authority, are reviled117 as despisers of God, and enemies of man. These are bitter calumnies118, yet they reached one of the best of men,6 whose ashes still preach peace, and whose memory demands a respectful pause, when subjects are discussed that lay so near his heart —
6 Dr. [Richard] Price.
After attacking the sacred majesty119 of Kings, I shall scarcely excite surprise by adding my firm persuasion120 that every profession, in which great subordination of rank constitutes its power, is highly injurious to morality.
A standing121 army, for instance, is incompatible122 with freedom; because subordination and rigour are the very sinews of military discipline; and despotism is necessary to give vigour123 to enterprizes that one will directs. A spirit inspired by romantic notions of honour, a kind of morality founded on the fashion of the age, can only be felt by a few officers, whilst the main body must be moved by command, like the waves of the sea; for the strong wind of authority pushes the crowd of subalterns forward, they scarcely know or care why, with headlong fury.
Besides, nothing can be so prejudicial to the morals of the inhabitants of country towns as the occasional residence of a set of idle superficial young men, whose only occupation is gallantry, and whose polished manners render vice more dangerous, by concealing124 its deformity under gay ornamental125 drapery. An air of fashion, which is but a badge of slavery, and proves that the soul has not a strong individual character, awes126 simple country people into an imitation of the vices, when they cannot catch the slippery graces, of politeness. Every corps127 is a chain of despots, who, submitting and tyrannizing without exercising their reason, become dead weights of vice and folly128 on the community. A man of rank or fortune, sure of rising by interest, has nothing to do but to pursue some extravagant129 freak; whilst the needy130 gentleman, who is to rise, as the phrase turns, by his merit, becomes a servile parasite131 or vile pander132.
Sailors, the naval133 gentlemen, come under the same description, only their vices assume a different and a grosser cast. They are more positively134 indolent, when not discharging the ceremonials of their station; whilst the insignificant135 fluttering of soldiers may be termed active idleness. More confined to the society of men, the former acquire a fondness for humour and mischievous137 tricks; whilst the latter, mixing frequently with well-bred women, catch a sentimental138 cant136. — But mind is equally out of the question, whether they indulge the horse-laugh, or polite simper.
May I be allowed to extend the comparison to a profession where more mind is certainly to be found; for the clergy139 have superior opportunities of improvement, though subordination almost equally cramps140 their faculties141? The blind submission142 imposed at college to forms of belief serves as a novitiate to the curate, who must obsequiously143 respect the opinion of his rector or patron, if he mean to rise in his profession. Perhaps there cannot be a more forcible contrast than between the servile dependent gait of a poor curate and the courtly mien144 of a bishop145. And the respect and contempt they inspire render the discharge of their separate functions equally useless.
It is of great importance to observe that the character of every man is, in some degree, formed by his profession. A man of sense may only have a cast of countenance146 that wears off as you trace his individuality, whilst the weak, common man has scarcely ever any character, but what belongs to the body; at least, all his opinions have been so steeped in the vat96 consecrated147 by authority, that the faint spirit which the grape of his own vine yields cannot be distinguished.
Society, therefore, as it becomes more enlightened, should be very careful not to establish bodies of men who must necessarily be made foolish or vicious by the very constitution of their profession.
In the infancy of society, when men were just emerging out of barbarism, chiefs and priests, touching148 the most powerful springs of savage conduct, hope and fear, must have had unbounded sway. An aristocracy, of course, is naturally the first form of government. But, clashing interests soon losing their equipoise, a monarchy and hierarchy149 break out of the confusion of ambitious struggles, and the foundation of both is secured by feudal150 tenures. This appears to be the origin of monarchical151 and priestly power, and the dawn of civilization. But such combustible152 materials cannot long be pent up; and, getting vent17 in foreign wars and intestine73 insurrections, the people acquire some power in tumult153, which obliges their rulers to gloss154 over their oppression with a shew of right. Thus, as wars, agriculture, commerce, and literature, expand the mind, despots are compelled, to make covert155 corruption156 hold fast the power which was formerly157 snatched by open force.7 And this baneful158 lurking gangrene is most quickly spread by luxury and superstition159, the sure dregs of ambition. The indolent puppet of a court first becomes a luxurious160 monster, or fastidious sensualist, and then makes the contagion161 which his unnatural state spread, the instrument of tyranny.
7 Men of abilities scatter162 seeds that grow up and have a great influence on the forming opinion; and when once the public opinion preponderates163, through the exertion164 of reason, the overthrow165 of arbitrary power is not very distant.
It is the pestiferous purple which renders the progress of civilization a curse, and warps166 the understanding, till men of sensibility doubt whether the expansion of intellect produces a greater portion of happiness or misery. But the nature of the poison points out the antidote167; and had Rousseau mounted one step higher in his investigation, or could his eye have pierced through the foggy atmosphere, which he almost disdained168 to breathe, his active mind would have darted169 forward to contemplate170 the perfection of man in the establishment of true civilization, instead of taking his ferocious171 flight back to the night of sensual ignorance.
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1
prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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entangled
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| adj.卷入的；陷入的；被缠住的；缠在一起的v.使某人（某物/自己）缠绕，纠缠于（某物中），使某人（自己）陷入（困难或复杂的环境中）( entangle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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eminence
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| n.卓越，显赫；高地，高处；名家 | |
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brute
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| n.野兽，兽性 | |
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exalt
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| v.赞扬，歌颂，晋升，提升 | |
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exalts
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| 赞扬( exalt的第三人称单数 )； 歌颂； 提升； 提拔 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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brutes
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| 兽( brute的名词复数 )； 畜生； 残酷无情的人； 兽性 | |
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capability
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| n.能力；才能；(pl)可发展的能力或特性等 | |
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bind
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| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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perplexed
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| adj.不知所措的 | |
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adventitious
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| adj.偶然的 | |
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vent
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| n.通风口，排放口；开衩；vt.表达，发泄 | |
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deviations
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| 背离，偏离( deviation的名词复数 )； 离经叛道的行为 | |
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justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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imbibed
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| v.吸收( imbibe的过去式和过去分词 )；喝；吸取；吸气 | |
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resolutely
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| adj.坚决地，果断地 | |
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cowardice
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| n.胆小，怯懦 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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plausible
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| adj.似真实的，似乎有理的，似乎可信的 | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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skulks
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| v.潜伏，偷偷摸摸地走动，鬼鬼祟祟地活动( skulk的第三人称单数 ) | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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expedient
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| adj.有用的，有利的；n.紧急的办法，权宜之计 | |
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expediency
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| n.适宜；方便；合算；利己 | |
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specious
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| adj.似是而非的；adv.似是而非地 | |
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presumption
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| n.推测，可能性，冒昧，放肆，[法律]推定 | |
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prescription
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| n.处方，开药；指示，规定 | |
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nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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innocence
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| n.无罪；天真；无害 | |
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misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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bartered
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| v.作物物交换，以货换货( barter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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sycophants
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| n.谄媚者，拍马屁者( sycophant的名词复数 ) | |
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doting
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| adj.溺爱的，宠爱的 | |
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patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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intriguing
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| adj.有趣的；迷人的v.搞阴谋诡计(intrigue的现在分词)；激起…的好奇心 | |
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hereditary
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| adj.遗传的，遗传性的，可继承的，世袭的 | |
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monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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blasphemy
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| n.亵渎，渎神 | |
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providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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darting
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| v.投掷，投射( dart的现在分词 )；向前冲，飞奔 | |
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celestial
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| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
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vengeance
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| n.报复，报仇，复仇 | |
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lurking
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| 潜在 | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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mischiefs
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| 损害( mischief的名词复数 )； 危害； 胡闹； 调皮捣蛋的人 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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temerity
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| n.鲁莽，冒失 | |
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disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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pervaded
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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fatigued
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| adj. 疲乏的 | |
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solitude
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| n. 孤独; 独居,荒僻之地,幽静的地方 | |
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optimist
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| n.乐观的人，乐观主义者 | |
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uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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exalting
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| a.令人激动的，令人喜悦的 | |
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64
arraign
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| v.提讯；控告 | |
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65
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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66
exclamation
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| n.感叹号，惊呼，惊叹词 | |
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67
immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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68
brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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69
adorn
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| vt.使美化，装饰 | |
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70
excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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71
benignity
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| n.仁慈 | |
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72
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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73
intestine
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| adj.内部的；国内的；n.肠 | |
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74
intestines
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| n.肠( intestine的名词复数 ) | |
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75
gregarious
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| adj.群居的，喜好群居的 | |
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76
infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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77
impelled
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| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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78
herding
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| 中畜群 | |
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79
ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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80
mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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81
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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82
stigmatizes
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| v.使受耻辱，指责，污辱( stigmatize的第三人称单数 ) | |
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83
apotheosis
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| n.神圣之理想；美化；颂扬 | |
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84
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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85
spartans
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| n.斯巴达（spartan的复数形式） | |
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86
defiance
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| n.挑战，挑衅，蔑视，违抗 | |
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87
gratitude
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| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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88
sifting
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| n.筛，过滤v.筛( sift的现在分词 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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89
chaff
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| v.取笑，嘲笑；n.谷壳 | |
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90
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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91
vestiges
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| 残余部分( vestige的名词复数 )； 遗迹； 痕迹； 毫不 | |
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92
semblance
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| n.外貌，外表 | |
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93
bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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94
sinister
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| adj.不吉利的，凶恶的，左边的 | |
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95
contemptible
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| adj.可鄙的，可轻视的，卑劣的 | |
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96
vat
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| n.(=value added tax)增值税，大桶 | |
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97
vile
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| adj.卑鄙的，可耻的，邪恶的；坏透的 | |
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98
intrigues
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| n.密谋策划( intrigue的名词复数 )；神秘气氛；引人入胜的复杂情节v.搞阴谋诡计( intrigue的第三人称单数 )；激起…的好奇心 | |
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99
unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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100
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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101
posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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102
rapacious
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| adj.贪婪的，强夺的 | |
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103
hover
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| vi.翱翔，盘旋；徘徊；彷徨，犹豫 | |
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104
tares
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| 荑；稂莠；稗 | |
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105
figs
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| figures 数字，图形，外形 | |
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106
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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107
concur
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| v.同意，意见一致，互助，同时发生 | |
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108
entrusted
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| v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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109
elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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110
attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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111
stifled
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| （使）窒息， （使）窒闷( stifle的过去式和过去分词 )； 镇压，遏制； 堵 | |
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112
inebriates
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| vt.使酒醉，灌醉（inebriate的第三人称单数形式） | |
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113
maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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114
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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115
implicit
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| a.暗示的，含蓄的，不明晰的，绝对的 | |
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116
calamity
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| n.灾害，祸患，不幸事件 | |
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117
reviled
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| v.辱骂，痛斥( revile的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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118
calumnies
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| n.诬蔑，诽谤，中伤（的话）( calumny的名词复数 ) | |
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119
majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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120
persuasion
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| n.劝说；说服；持有某种信仰的宗派 | |
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121
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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122
incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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123
vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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124
concealing
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，遮住( conceal的现在分词 ) | |
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125
ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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126
awes
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| n.敬畏，惊惧( awe的名词复数 )v.使敬畏，使惊惧( awe的第三人称单数 ) | |
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127
corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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128
folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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129
extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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130
needy
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| adj.贫穷的，贫困的，生活艰苦的 | |
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131
parasite
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| n.寄生虫；寄生菌；食客 | |
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132
pander
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| v.迎合；n.拉皮条者，勾引者；帮人做坏事的人 | |
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133
naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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134
positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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135
insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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136
cant
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| n.斜穿，黑话，猛扔 | |
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137
mischievous
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| adj.调皮的，恶作剧的，有害的，伤人的 | |
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138
sentimental
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| adj.多愁善感的，感伤的 | |
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139
clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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140
cramps
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| n. 抽筋, 腹部绞痛, 铁箍 adj. 狭窄的, 难解的 v. 使...抽筋, 以铁箍扣紧, 束缚 | |
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141
faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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142
submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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143
obsequiously
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144
mien
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| n.风采；态度 | |
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145
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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146
countenance
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| n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同 | |
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147
consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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148
touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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149
hierarchy
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| n.等级制度；统治集团，领导层 | |
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150
feudal
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| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
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151
monarchical
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| adj. 国王的，帝王的，君主的，拥护君主制的 =monarchic | |
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152
combustible
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| a. 易燃的,可燃的; n. 易燃物,可燃物 | |
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153
tumult
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| n.喧哗；激动，混乱；吵闹 | |
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154
gloss
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| n.光泽，光滑；虚饰；注释；vt.加光泽于；掩饰 | |
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155
covert
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| adj.隐藏的；暗地里的 | |
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156
corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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157
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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158
baneful
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| adj.有害的 | |
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159
superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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160
luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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161
contagion
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| n.(通过接触的疾病)传染；蔓延 | |
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162
scatter
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| vt.撒，驱散，散开；散布/播；vi.分散，消散 | |
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163
preponderates
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| v.超过，胜过( preponderate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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164
exertion
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| n.尽力，努力 | |
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165
overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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166
warps
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| n.弯曲( warp的名词复数 )；歪斜；经线；经纱v.弄弯，变歪( warp的第三人称单数 )；使（行为等）不合情理，使乖戾， | |
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167
antidote
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| n.解毒药，解毒剂 | |
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168
disdained
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| 鄙视( disdain的过去式和过去分词 )； 不屑于做，不愿意做 | |
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169
darted
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| v.投掷，投射( dart的过去式和过去分词 )；向前冲，飞奔 | |
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170
contemplate
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| vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视 | |
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171
ferocious
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| adj.凶猛的，残暴的，极度的，十分强烈的 | |
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