WESTMINSTER (Mitred Benedictine)
c. 184, Lucius, King of Britain, consecrates1 Westminster (then Thorny2 Island) to God, and builds the first church there—At the time of Diocletian’s persecution3, the church converted into a heathen temple and dedicated4 to Apollo—604, Sebert, King of the East Saxons, converted and baptized into the Christian5 faith by Mellitus—He destroys the temple and builds a church in honour of St Peter—This suffers greatly from the ravages6 of the Danes—785, Offa, King of Mercia, grants the manor7 of Aldenham to the monastery8 and restores the church—1050, Edward the Confessor, the actual founder9 of the present abbey, builds the church—1065, The church completed and consecrated10 a few days previously11 to the royal founder’s death—1066, Edward buried with great ceremonial—King Harold crowned—William the Conqueror12 offers a thanksgiving for his victory at Hastings before the Confessor’s tomb, and is crowned in the abbey on Christmas day—1160, Becomes a mitred abbey—1250, Henry III. pulls down the choir13 and transepts of Edward’s Norman church and begins the present structure—1253, The chapter house completed—1269, The choir opened—1272-1500, The nave14 begun, gradually attaining15 its present length—During these years Richard I. builds the north porch, and Henry V. his beautiful chantry—1503, Henry VII. builds the chapel16 which bears his name—153—, Dissolution of the monastery. Annual revenue, ￡3471, 0s. 2d.—1540, The church converted into a cathedral church and a new bishopric created—1550, Bishopric suppressed—1643, The Westminster Assembly meets—1663, The See of Rochester joined to the Deanery of Westminster—1673, Treaty of Westminster signed—1720, Some restorations performed by Wren18 on north transept, front and west towers—1740, Hawkesmoor completes the towers—1802, Separation of Rochester bishopric from Deanery of Westminster—1866, Sir G. Scott restores the north transept front and chapter house.
HOW utterly19 incapable20 the most experienced writer must feel when called upon to describe worthily21 the{152} abbey of Westminster! Apart from all the legendary22 matter connected with the noble pile, and the glamour23 which surrounds the ancient Benedictine church, the abbey stands out as the receptacle of all that is best and grandest in the history of England. The tombs of the kings and queens, the monuments erected24 since the Reformation in memory of notable men and women in literature, music, and all other arts, make history a nearer and more living thing. To pass beneath the noble west front into the sacred building, teaming with memories of the past, is to enter another world, so different is the peaceful and mysterious atmosphere within the abbey from the bustle25 and hum of London without. Looking eastwards26 from the west door, the aspect is truly inspiring and beautiful. From the graceful27 pointed28 arches, dividing the nave from the aisles30, and surmounted31 by the triforium and clerestory, the eye falls on the choir, with its magnificent stone screen, and beyond this again to the dim and apsidal east end. The loftiness of the building, the fine triforium, the harmony of work in the nave (which took over 200 years to build), will deeply impress the beholder32.
Though the plan of the church is French, the whole actual structure is an example of English Gothic work, of which the nation has every right to be proud. The abbey possesses side aisles to the nave, transepts, and choir. This is a very rare formation. Leaving the nave, filled with memorials of the illustrious dead, and passing up the south choir aisle29, the south transept comes in view. The magnificent rose window is one of the largest, if not the largest, in England. On the south wall are some worn stone steps. These, no doubt, led to the domestic apartments of the monks33, which were situated34 on the south side of the church. In this transept is the well-known “Poets’ Corner,” which contains memorials inscribed35 with the magic names of Shakespeare, Dickens, Tennyson, Goldsmith, Burns, Sir Walter Scott, Longfellow,{153} Browning, Milton, and many others. Beyond this is the small chapel dedicated to St Faith. Passing on into the south ambulatory the many interesting chapels36 can be inspected. Here indeed the visitor treads on holy ground, for he approaches the tombs of England’s divinely-appointed rulers, and of the last resting-place of the greatest of her sons. Leaving the chapels of St Benedict, St Edmund and St Nicholas, so full of historical memory, the visitor may pass into the chantry built by the illustrious Henry V. for the repose37 of his soul. This chantry lies in a direct line eastwards from the high altar and beyond Edward the Confessor’s chapel, which is immediately behind the altar. The figure of the warrior39 King reposes40 on the top of his tomb. It was carved from the heart of an oak, and once possessed41 a head and regalia of silver. These, however, have unfortunately been removed, probably by the rapacious42 Oliver Cromwell. The chantry itself is in the form of a screen or small room, which is reached by a stairway enclosed in a turret43, and left by another on the opposite side. The screen is covered with images of saints, and also incidents of Henry’s coronation, besides many heraldic emblems45. On either side are two octagonal towers, rich in sculpture. It is indeed one of the most beautiful monuments in the building. Below are iron gates and the tomb of Henry V., and above are displayed a saddle tree stripped of its elaborate housings, a small shield, and a helmet upon which can be seen the prodigious46 dent44 caused by D’Alen?on’s battle axe47. These remains48 of Henry’s armour49, worn at the battle of Agincourt, were offered by the King in thanksgiving for his great victory. It is quite fitting that the burial place of this royal hero should be near the remains of the saintly ruler and founder of the abbey, Edward the Confessor.
St Edward’s chapel is perhaps the most interesting part of the noble structure, for though comparatively{154} small, events of the highest historical importance in our history have been enacted50 therein. The shrine51 has been visited by thousands of pilgrims, including many crowned heads, and has also been the scene of many miracles. Vigils were spent beside it by knights52 before setting out for the borders, or starting upon the crusades. Spoils of war were brought and laid before the tomb, and thanksgivings offered by victorious53 kings and warriors54. Edward I., all stained as he was by the blood of the battlefield, offered the regalia of Scotland before the royal tomb, and many other mighty55 men came to seek consolation56 and encouragement in those days of dreadful warfare57. Henry III. erected the present magnificent shrine in 1269. This now, alas58, is shorn of the many and costly59 jewels that once enriched it, and which it is said amounted in value to ￡2500. The present oak canopy60 was added in the 16th century. The floor of the chapel is of tesselated blue marble and was laid by Henry III. The site of the Confessor’s altar is marked by a square of red tiles. The old coronation chair stands to the west of the chapel, near the enormous sword and shield of Edward III., and beneath it is the stone credited with being Jacob’s pillow, and which, after going through many vicissitudes61 in its long career, was at last brought from Scone62 to Edward the Confessor’s shrine by Edward I. The chair was first used at the coronation of Edward I., and lastly at that of our beloved King Edward VII. Every English monarch63 has been crowned at the abbey with the exception of Edward V. On all sides of the chapel are royal tombs, including those of Edward III., Henry III., and Edward I. The latter is of enormous length, and bears the inscription64, “Scotorum malleus” and “Serva pactum.” This monarch—nicknamed “Longshanks”—was over 6 feet when alive. After many years, his body for some reason was disinterred for a short space, and it was found to be in an{155} excellent state of preservation66. That noble lady, Anne of Bohemia, who gained notoriety by the introduction of the side saddle, also lies buried near here.
Leaving this chapel and progressing eastwards, the visitor will pass under St Mary’s beautiful porch into the wonderful chapel built by Henry VII. This is one of the best examples of Early Tudor or debased Gothic style, and, consisting as it does of a nave with two aisles, is indeed a masterpiece of the builder’s art. On either side of the nave are the stalls of the Knights of the Garter, above which hang their respective banners. The tomb of Henry VII., the first monarch of the royal house of Tudor, is the work of Torregiano. The ornamental67 vaulting68 of the chapel is among the finest in the country—its massive pendants being 7 feet long. Little of the original glass is left, but what remains is in the windows at the west end. The Duke of Cumberland, known as the Butcher of Culloden, and George II. and his wife lie in the nave. George III. discontinued the practice begun by Henry VII. of using this chapel as a royal mausoleum, having a preference for Windsor. Those two antagonistic69 sisters, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth lie in the north aisle, side by side under a magnificent stone canopy, while at the extreme east end of the aisle, appropriately called “Innocents’ Corner,” are buried the remains of the young princes so foully70 murdered in the Tower. The tomb of Mary, Queen of Scots, is in the south aisle, together with that of Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII. Many other interesting monuments can be seen, including that of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Dean of Westminster, in the south-east chapel, and those belonging to the houses of Richmond, Suffolk and Lennox. Cromwell was buried in the east chapel, but his remains were disinterred and dragged to Tyburn gallows71.
Retracing72 his steps the visitor will pass along the{156} north ambulatory—the chapel of St Edward being now on the left and those of St Paul, St John the Baptist, and the Islip being on the right. In the latter, which is the chantry of Abbot Islip, waxen figures of some of the royal line are shown. These, though of somewhat gruesome nature, are intensely interesting, being the actual waxen casts taken after death. It was the custom to carry the figure of the deceased at the funeral and then to leave it at the abbey after interment. Many have decayed—the oldest one now on view being that of Queen Elizabeth. The figures are dressed in the clothes of the Sovereigns they personate. The lace on the neck of Charles II. is of great value. Passing into the north transept or Statesmen’s Aisle, many stone memorials again confront the beholder, and include those of Beaconsfield, Gladstone, and William Pitt. Warren Hastings, Richard Cobden and Vice-admiral Watson—the gallant74 man who rescued the survivors75 of the “Black hole of Calcutta”—are buried among many other notable men in the west aisle. The three eastern chapels of this transept contain many interesting monuments too—that of Lady Elizabeth Nightingale, in the chapel of St Michael, is perhaps the most popular. It represents her husband trying to shield her from the relentless76 form of Death, which takes the shape of a shrouded77 skeleton issuing out of a door below with a raised sword in his hand.
Progressing again towards the centre of the building, the ritual choir of three bays and the sacrarium claim the attention. The tombs here of Aveline of Lancaster, her husband Edmund Crouchbank and Aymer de Valence—all of the 13th century—are among the finest in the abbey. Near the insignificant78 tomb of Anne of Cleves lies Anne, wife of Richard III., and some of the abbots of Westminster. Busby and South are buried close to the altar. The mosaic79 pavement consists of porphyry, lapis lazuli, jasper, touchstone, alabaster80, and Lydian and serpentine{157} marbles. These were brought by Abbot Ware81 from Italy and arranged in the reign73 of Henry III. by Roderick.
An excellent view can be gained by looking west from the altar rails. The absolute sympathy of all the parts of this lovely building, the graceful arches, the diaper work in the spandrils of the choir arches, the loftiness and mysterious atmosphere of the ancient structure will appeal to all the highest aspirations82 of the individual. It is the temple of God, and also the shelter of those either of noble or lowly birth who have, according to their capabilities83, furthered civilisation84 and promoted the common good; who, in fact, have done God’s work in this present world and endeavoured to make their fellow-men more worthy85 of the world to come. No one can enter this abbey and not be impressed by the dignity and solemnity of the surroundings. To look at the small, insignificant pulpit in the nave is nothing; but to learn that Latimer preached from it is everything. All is in keeping—nothing jars upon the artistic86 sense—with perhaps the exception of the numerous monuments. Still, these too have their place in showing that the mother-abbey takes into her arms all those who have worthily fulfilled the mission of their lives. The cloisters87 on the south side of the abbey are of great interest and contain many monuments, and the windows, too, in the south alley88 are remarkably89 beautiful. On this side are remains of the north wall of the former refectory. The chapter-house is one of the largest in England and was for many years used as a House of Commons. Earl Simon de Montfort assembled his first representative parliament here in the 13th century. The dormitory of the monastery is now used by the boys of Westminster School, founded by Queen Elizabeth, 1560.
The remote history of Westminster Abbey is enveloped90 in mystery, its earliest foundation being firstly ascribed to Lucius, King of Britain in the 2nd century,{158} and secondly91 to Sebert, King of the East Saxons, who, in the 7th century, was converted into the Christian faith by Mellitus, an emissary of Augustine. Be this as it may, the first certain knowledge concerning the abbey is that Offa, King of Mercia, gave some lands to the monastery at Westminster in the 8th century. Nearly three hundred years had elapsed when Edward the Confessor, persuaded by the monks, was induced to build an entirely92 new building at an enormous cost. This, the founder determined93, should be the “place of the King’s constitution and consecration94 for ever.” Among other gifts, the bounteous95 King gave rich vestments, an embroidered96 pall97, a dalmatic, some spurs, a golden crown, a sceptre, and also confirmed all the previous endowments. The new abbey was dedicated on Holy Innocents’ day, 1065. Unfortunately the King was too ill to attend this ceremonial. He died eight days after, and was buried in front of the high altar. In the time of William the Conqueror a great synod was held in the church. Archbishop Lanfranc presided over the meeting at which the conduct and capability98 of the English clergy99 were closely examined, “yet with covert100 design of making room for the new-come Normans.” The Conqueror in many ways endeavoured to ingratiate himself with the newly conquered people. For this reason he was crowned in the abbey by the side of its founder’s tomb. The Feast of Edward the Confessor was observed annually101 with much pomp in the sacred building.
In the 13th century Henry III. began to rebuild the abbey—the choir, transepts and chapels of the present structure being entirely his work. Little remains of the Confessor’s Norman building (the first of this style built in England) except some parts of the cloisters and the Chapel of the Pyx. The trial of the Pyx took place in the former apartment until the recent removal of standard coins to the mint. The Jerusalem Chamber102 is also an important relic103 of the Benedictine monastery. It was built in 1363 by{159} Littlington, who also rebuilt the abbot’s house. Henry IV. died within its walls. Henry V. gave the trappings of his coursers to the abbey—to be converted into vestments. In this reign the building of the nave was pushed forward and the Te Deum sung after the battle of Agincourt. Caxton set up his printing press in the almonry at Westminster during the reign of Edward IV. Henry VII. added greatly to the beauty of the building by annexing104 his chapel to the east end. During his reign, Skelton, the first poet laureate, sought sanctuary105 in Westminster, which is the last instance on record of a person claiming this right. Sir Thomas More was imprisoned106 in the abbot’s house in 1534—a few years before the Dissolution of the monasteries107. The usual fate overtook the religious establishment at Westminster, but as in the cases of Chester, Gloucester, Peterborough, Oxford108 and Bristol, the monastic church was converted into a cathedral—and a new bishopric formed. Thirlby became the first Bishop17 of Westminster in 1540—but was translated to Norwich ten years later and the bishopric suppressed. In this transaction the abbey lost some property which came into the possession of St Paul’s Cathedral, a circumstance to which the origin of the well-known saying, “Robbing Peter to pay Paul” may be adduced. The shrine of the Confessor was re-established in 1557, the old constitution having been restored two years previously. In the reign of Elizabeth this was again annulled109.
In Henry VII.’s chapel the Westminster Assembly met in the 17th century, and through their misguided energy Presbyterianism was established as the national religion for a certain time. It is impossible to say what dire38 effects this Assembly might have wrought110 upon the welfare of the country.
“By its advice the public use of the Prayer Book was forbidden under penalties the very day that the Primate111 was executed, and a directory for public worship substituted for it. By the directory it was made an offence to kneel at the{160} reception of Holy Communion, or to use any kind of symbolism in sacred things, such as the ring in marriage, and when any person departed this life, the dead body was to be interred65 without any kind of religious ceremony, nor even the friends allowed to sing or read or pray or kneel at the grave; although secular112 display in funeral processions of persons of rank was not restricted. Then the holy and beautiful petitions of our Liturgy113, though sanctified by the devotions of Christians114 in every clime and by every tongue for 1500 years and more, gave place to long and tedious harangues115 from illiterate116 fanatics117 of two or three hours’ duration, and the observance of great church festivals, together with all anniversaries, was strictly118 forbidden. On December 19th, 1644, a solemn ordinance119 of parliament was passed by the advice of the Westminster Assembly commanding that the hitherto joyous120 anniversary of our Lord’s Nativity should be observed as a day of national fasting and humiliation121.”—English Church History (Rev. C. A. Lane).
The Parliamentarians under Cromwell fortunately soon put a stop to those irksome restrictions122.
The Bishopric of Rochester was united with the Deanery of Westminster in 1663 and, after a partnership123 of over a hundred years, parted at the beginning of the 19th century. The treaty of Westminster was signed in 1673. Samuel Wilberforce became the Dean in 1845. Many well-known men followed him and during the time of office of Dean Bradley, 1881-1902, Queen Victoria held her Jubilee124 Celebration and Edward VII. was crowned in the Abbey.
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1
consecrates
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| n.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的名词复数 )；奉献v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的第三人称单数 )；奉献 | |
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thorny
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| adj.多刺的，棘手的 | |
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persecution
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| n. 迫害,烦扰 | |
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dedicated
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| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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manor
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| n.庄园，领地 | |
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monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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choir
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| n.唱诗班，唱诗班的席位，合唱团，舞蹈团；v.合唱 | |
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nave
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| n.教堂的中部；本堂 | |
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attaining
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的现在分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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wren
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| n.鹪鹩；英国皇家海军女子服务队成员 | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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worthily
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| 重要地，可敬地，正当地 | |
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legendary
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| adj.传奇（中）的，闻名遐迩的；n.传奇（文学） | |
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glamour
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| n.魔力，魅力；vt.迷住 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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bustle
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| v.喧扰地忙乱，匆忙，奔忙；n.忙碌；喧闹 | |
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eastwards
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| adj.向东方（的），朝东（的）；n.向东的方向 | |
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graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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aisle
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| n.（教堂、教室、戏院等里的）过道，通道 | |
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aisles
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| n. (席位间的)通道, 侧廊 | |
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surmounted
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| 战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上 | |
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beholder
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| n.观看者，旁观者 | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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inscribed
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| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
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chapels
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| n.小教堂， （医院、监狱等的）附属礼拜堂( chapel的名词复数 )；（在小教堂和附属礼拜堂举行的）礼拜仪式 | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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dire
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| adj.可怕的，悲惨的，阴惨的，极端的 | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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reposes
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| v.将（手臂等）靠在某人（某物）上( repose的第三人称单数 ) | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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rapacious
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| adj.贪婪的，强夺的 | |
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turret
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| n.塔楼，角塔 | |
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dent
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| n.凹痕，凹坑；初步进展 | |
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emblems
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| n.象征，标记( emblem的名词复数 ) | |
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prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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axe
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| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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armour
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| （=armor）n.盔甲；装甲部队 | |
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enacted
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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51
shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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52
knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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consolation
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| n.安慰，慰问 | |
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warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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59
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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60
canopy
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| n.天篷，遮篷 | |
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61
vicissitudes
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| n.变迁，世事变化；变迁兴衰( vicissitude的名词复数 )；盛衰兴废 | |
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62
scone
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| n.圆饼，甜饼，司康饼 | |
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63
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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64
inscription
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| n.（尤指石块上的）刻印文字，铭文，碑文 | |
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65
interred
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| v.埋，葬( inter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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66
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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67
ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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68
vaulting
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| n.（天花板或屋顶的）拱形结构 | |
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69
antagonistic
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| adj.敌对的 | |
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70
foully
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| ad.卑鄙地 | |
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71
gallows
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| n.绞刑架，绞台 | |
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72
retracing
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| v.折回( retrace的现在分词 )；回忆；回顾；追溯 | |
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73
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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74
gallant
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| adj.英勇的，豪侠的；(向女人)献殷勤的 | |
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survivors
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| 幸存者，残存者，生还者( survivor的名词复数 ) | |
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76
relentless
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| adj.残酷的，不留情的，无怜悯心的 | |
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77
shrouded
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| v.隐瞒( shroud的过去式和过去分词 )；保密 | |
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78
insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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79
mosaic
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| n./adj.镶嵌细工的，镶嵌工艺品的，嵌花式的 | |
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80
alabaster
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| adj.雪白的；n.雪花石膏；条纹大理石 | |
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81
ware
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| n.(常用复数)商品，货物 | |
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82
aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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capabilities
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| n.能力( capability的名词复数 )；可能；容量；[复数]潜在能力 | |
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84
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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85
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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cloisters
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| n.（学院、修道院、教堂等建筑的）走廊( cloister的名词复数 )；回廊；修道院的生活；隐居v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的第三人称单数 ) | |
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88
alley
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| n.小巷，胡同；小径，小路 | |
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89
remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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90
enveloped
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| v.包围，笼罩，包住( envelop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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92
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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93
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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94
consecration
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| n.供献，奉献，献祭仪式 | |
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95
bounteous
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| adj.丰富的 | |
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96
embroidered
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| adj．绣花的 | |
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97
pall
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| v.覆盖，使平淡无味；n.柩衣，棺罩；棺材；帷幕 | |
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98
capability
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| n.能力；才能；(pl)可发展的能力或特性等 | |
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99
clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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100
covert
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| adj.隐藏的；暗地里的 | |
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101
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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102
chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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103
relic
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| n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物 | |
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104
annexing
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| 并吞( annex的现在分词 )； 兼并； 强占； 并吞（国家、地区等） | |
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105
sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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106
imprisoned
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| 下狱，监禁( imprison的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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107
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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108
Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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109
annulled
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| v.宣告无效( annul的过去式和过去分词 )；取消；使消失；抹去 | |
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110
wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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111
primate
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| n.灵长类（目）动物，首席主教；adj.首要的 | |
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112
secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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113
liturgy
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| n.礼拜仪式 | |
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114
Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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115
harangues
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| n.高谈阔论的长篇演讲( harangue的名词复数 )v.高谈阔论( harangue的第三人称单数 ) | |
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116
illiterate
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| adj.文盲的；无知的；n.文盲 | |
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117
fanatics
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| 狂热者，入迷者( fanatic的名词复数 ) | |
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118
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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119
ordinance
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| n.法令；条令；条例 | |
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120
joyous
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| adj.充满快乐的；令人高兴的 | |
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121
humiliation
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| n.羞辱 | |
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122
restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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123
partnership
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| n.合作关系，伙伴关系 | |
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124
jubilee
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| n.周年纪念；欢乐 | |
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