Before discussing the custom in its historical and social relations, it will be well to advert5 to the soil of thought out of which it sprang, and from which it drew strength and sustenance6. Already we have spoken of the heritage of human sentiment. Now there is ample evidence that the indifference7 to the marriage of widows which marks our time did not obtain always and everywhere. On the contrary, among widely separated races such arrangements evoked8 deep repugnance9, as subversive10 of the perfect union of man and wife, and clearly also of the civil inferiority of females. The notion that a woman is the property of her husband, joined to a belief in the immortality11 of the soul, appears to lie at the root of the dislike to second marriages—which, according to this view, imply a degree of freedom approximating to immorality12. The culmination13 of duty and fidelity14 in life and death is seen in the immolation15 of Hindu widows. The Manu prescribes no such fiery16 ordeal17, but it states the principles leading to this display of futile18 heroism19: "Let her consecrate20 her body by living entirely21 on flowers, roots, and fruits. Let her not, when her lord is deceased, ever pronounce the name of another man. A widow who slights her deceased lord by marrying again brings disgrace on herself here below, and shall be excluded from the seat of her lord."
A similar feeling permeated22 the early Church. "The argument used against the unions," says Professor Donaldson, "was that God made husband and wife one flesh, and one flesh they remained even after the death of one of them. If they were one flesh, how could a second woman be added to them?" He alludes23, of course, to the re-marriage of the husband, but the argument, whatever it may be worth, applies equally to both parties. An ancient example of renunciation is afforded by Judith, of whom it is recorded: "She was a widow now three years and six months, and she made herself a private chamber25 in the upper part of the house, in which she abode26 shut up with her maids and she wore hair-cloth upon her loins, and fasted all the days of her life, except the Sabbaths and new moons, and the feasts of the house of Israel; and on festival days she came forth27 in great glory, and she abode in her husband's house a hundred and five years."
An order of widows is said to have been founded or confirmed by St. Paul, who fixed28 the age of admission at sixty. This assertion, one suspects, grew out of a passage in the First Epistle to Timothy, in which the apostle employs language that would, at least, be consonant29 with such a proceeding30: "Honour widows that are widows indeed.... Now she that is a widow indeed and desolate31 trusteth in God and continueth in supplications and prayers night and day." Simple but very striking is the epitaph inscribed32 on the wall of the Vatican:
OCTAVI? MATRON? VIDV? DEI.
The order of deaconesses appears to have been mainly composed of pious33 widows, and only those were eligible34 who had had but one husband. This order came to an end in the eleventh or twelfth century, but the vowesses, as a class, continued to subsist35 in England until the convulsions of the sixteenth century, and in the Roman Church survive as a class with some modifications36 in the order of Oblates, who, says Alban Butler in his life of St. Francis, "make no solemn vows, only a promise of obedience37 to the mother-president, enjoy pensions, inherit estates, and go abroad with leave." Their abbey in Rome is filled with ladies of the first rank.
The chief distinction between deaconesses and widows was the obligation imposed on the former to accomplish certain outward works, whereas widows vowed38 to remain till death in a single life, in which, like nuns39, they were regarded as mystically espoused40 to Christ. Unlike nuns, however, vowesses usually supported the burdens entailed43 by their previous marriage—superintending the affairs of the household and interesting themselves in the welfare of their descendants. St. Elizabeth of Hungary, though she bound herself to follow the injunctions of her confessor and received from him a coarse habit of undyed wool, did not become a nun24, but, on his advice, retained her secular44 estate and ministered to the needs of the poor. But instances occur in which vowesses retired45 from the world and its cares. Elfleda, niece of King Athelstan, having resolved to pass the remainder of her days in widowhood, fixed her abode in Glastonbury Abbey; and as late as July 23, 1527, leave was granted to the Prioress of Dartford to receive "any well-born matron widow, of good repute, to dwell perpetually in the monastery46 without a habit according to the custom of the monastery." Now and then a widow would completely embrace the religious life, as is shown by an inscription47 on the brass48 of John Goodrington, of Appleton, Berkshire, dated 1519, which states that his widow "toke relygyon at ye monastery of Sion."
The position of vowesses in the eyes of the Church may be illustrated49 in various ways. For example, the homilies of the Anglo-Saxon ?lfric testify to a triple division of the people of God. "There are," says he, "three states which bear witness of Christ; that is, maidenhood50, and widowhood, and lawful51 matrimony." And with the quaintness52 of medi?val symbolists, he affirms that the house of Cana in Galilee had three floors—the lowest occupied by believing married laymen53, the next by reputable widows, and the uppermost by virgins54. Emphasis is given to the order of comparative merit thus defined by the application to it of one of our Lord's parables55, for the first are to receive the thirty-fold, the second the sixty-fold, and the third and highest division the hundred-fold reward. Similarly, a hymn56 in the Sarum Missal for the festival of Holy Women asserts:
Fruit thirty-fold she yielded,
While yet a wedded57 wife;
But sixty-fold she rendered,
When in a widowed life.
And a Good Friday prayer in the same missal is introduced with the words: "Let us also pray for all bishops59, priests, deacons, sub-deacons, acolytes60, exorcists, readers, door-keepers, confessors, virgins, widows, and all the holy people of God."
In the pontifical61 of Bishop58 Lacy of Exeter may be found the office of the Benediction62 of a Widow. The ceremony was performed during mass, and prefixed to the office is a rubric directing that it shall take place on a solemn day or at least upon a Sunday. Between the epistle and gospel the bishop, seated in his chair, turned towards the people, asked the kneeling widow if she desired to be the spouse42 of Christ. Thereupon she made her profession in the vulgar tongue, and the bishop, rising, gave her his blessing63. Then followed four prayers, in one of which the bishop blessed the habit, after which he kneeled, began the hymn "Veni Creator Spiritus," and at the close bestowed64 upon the vowess the mantle65, the veil, and the ring. More prayers were said, wherein the bishop besought66 God to be the widow's solace67 in trouble, counsel in perplexity, defence under injury, patience in tribulation68, abundance in poverty, food in fasting, and medicine in sickness; and the rite69 ended with a renewed commendation of the widow to the merciful care of God.
It is worthy70 of note that in these supplications mention is made of the sixty-fold reward which the widow is to receive for her victory over her old enemy the Devil; and also, that the postulant is believed to have made her vow2 with her hands joined within those of the bishop, as if swearing allegiance.
Several witnesses were necessary on the occasion. When, for instance, the widow of Simon de Shardlowe made her profession before the Bishop of Norwich, as she did in 1369, the deed in which the vow was registered, and upon which she made the sign of the cross in token of consent, was witnessed by the Archdeacon of Norwich, Sir Simon de Babingle, and William de Swinefleet. In the same way the Earl of Warwick, the Lords Willoughby, Scales, and others, were present at the profession of Isabella, Countess of Suffolk. This noble lady made her vow in French, as did also Isabella Golafré, when she appeared for the purpose on Sunday, October 18, 1379, before William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester. Notwithstanding the direction in Bishop Lacy's pontifical, the vow was sometimes spoken in Latin, an instance of which is the case of "Domina Alicia Seynt Johan de Baggenet," whose profession took place on April 9, 1398, in the chapel71 of the Lord of Amberley, Sussex.
That the vow was restricted to the obligation of perpetual chastity, and in no way curtailed72 the freedom and privileges which the vowess shared with other ladies, is demonstrated by the contents of various wills, like that of Katherine of Riplingham, dated February 8, 1473. Therein she styles herself an "advowess"; but, having forfeited73 none of her civil rights, she devises estates, executes awards, and composes family differences. This is quite in the spirit of St. Paul's words: "If any widows have children or nephews, let them learn first to show piety74 at home, and to requite75 their parents, for that is good and acceptable to God."
Allusion76 has been made to the ring as the symbol of the spiritual espousal. As such it was the object of peculiar77 reverence78, and its destination was frequently specified79 in the vowess's will. Thus in "Testamenta Vetusta" we find the abstract of the will of Alice, widow of Sir Thomas West, dated 1395, in which the lady bequeaths "the ring with which I was spoused41 to God" to her son Sir Thomas. In like manner Katherine Riplingham leaves a gold ring set with a diamond—the ring with which she was sacred—to her daughter Alice Saint John. To some vowesses the custody80 even of a son or daughter appeared unworthy of so precious a relic81; and thus we learn that Lady Joan Danvers, by her will dated 1453, gave her spousal ring to the image of the Crucifix near the north door of St. Paul's, while Lady Margaret Davy presented hers to the image of Our Lady of Walsingham.
In certain instances the formality of episcopal benediction was dispensed82 with, a simple promise sufficing. As a case in point, John Brackenbury, by his will dated 1487, bequeathed to his mother certain real estate subject to the condition that she did not marry again—a condition to which she assented83 before the parson and parish of Thymmylbe. "If," says the testator, "she keep not that promise, I will that she be content with that which was my father's will, which she had every penny." But, in compacts or wills in which the married parties themselves were interested, the vow seems to have been usually exacted. Wives sometimes engaged with their husbands to make the vow; and the will of William Herbert, Knight84, Earl of Pembroke, dated July 27, 1469, contains an affecting reminder85 of duty—"And, wife, that you may remember your promise to take the order of widowhood, so that you may be the better maistres of your owen, to perform my will, and to help my children, as I love and trust you," etc.
Husbands left chattels86 to their wives provided that they took the vow of chastity. The will of Sir Gilbert Denys, Knight, of Syston, dated 1422, sets out: "If Margaret, my wife, will after my death vow a vow of chastity, I give her all my moveable goods, she paying my debts and providing for my children; and if she will not vow the vow of chastity, I desire my goods may be divided and distributed in three equal parts." On like terms wives were appointed executrices. William Edlington, Esq., of Castle Carlton, in his will dated June 11, 1466, declares: "I make Christian87, my wife, my sole executor on this condition, that she take the mantle soon after my decease; and in case she will not take the mantle and the ring, I will that William my son [and other persons named] be my executors, and she to have a third part of all my goods moveable."
Such is the frailty88 of human nature that even when widows accepted the obligation of faith and chastity in the most solemn manner, the vow was occasionally broken. This will hardly excite surprise when we consider the youth, or comparative youth, of some of the postulants. Mary, the widow of Lewis, King of Hungary, was only twenty-three at the time of her profession. Our English annals yield striking instances of promises followed by repentance89. Thus Eleanor, third daughter of King John, "on the death of her first husband, the Earl of Pembroke, 1231, in the first transports of her grief, made in public a solemn vow in the presence of Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury, that she would never again become a wife, but remain a true spouse of Christ, and received a ring in confirmation90, which she, however, broke, much to the indignation of a strong party of the laity91 and clergy92 of England, on her marriage with Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester." Another delinquent93 was Lady Elizabeth Juliers, Countess of Kent. When her first husband died, in 1354, she took a vow of chastity before William de Edyndon, Archbishop of Canterbury. Six years later she was wedded privately94 and without licence to Sir Eustace Dabridgecourt, Knight. As the result, the Archbishop of Canterbury instituted proceedings95 against her, and she was condemned96 to severe penance97 for the remainder of her life. In the light of these examples it is unnecessary to observe that the infraction98 of a vow so strict and stringent99 brought the utmost discredit100 on any widow who might be guilty of it.
The question has been raised why widows did not, instead of making their especial vow, enter the third orders of St. Dominic and St. Francis, both of them intended for pious persons remaining in the world. The answer has already, in some degree, been given in what was said regarding the extinct order of deaconesses. Followers101 of St. Dominic and St. Francis were bound to recite daily a shortened form of the Breviary, supposing that they were able to read, or, if they were not able, a certain number of Aves and Paternosters. They were further expected to observe sundry102 fasts over and above those commanded by the Church, and thus they became qualified103 for all the benefits accruing104 to the first two orders, Dominican and Franciscan. With the vowesses it was different. The one condition imposed upon them was that of chastity, as tending to a state of sanctification. They took upon themselves no other obligation whatever, and consequently acquired no title to the blessings105 and privileges flowing from the strict observance of rules to which they did not subscribe106. Even after the Reformation the custom did not absolutely cease. At any rate, Anne Clifford, Countess of Dorset, who died in 1676, is stated, after the death of her last husband, to have dressed in black serge and to have been very abstemious107 in the matter of food.
Here and there may be found funeral monuments containing representations of vowesses. Leland remarks, with reference to a member of the Marmion family at West Tanfield, Yorkshire: "There lyeth there alone a lady with the apparill of a vowess"; and in Norfolk there are still in existence two brasses108 of widows and vowesses. The earlier and smaller, of about the year 1500, adjoins the threshold of the west door of Witton church, near Blofield, and bears the figure of a lady in a gown, mantle, barbe or gorget, and veil, together with the inscription:
ORATE ANIMA DOMINE JULIANE ANGELL
VOTRICIS CUJUS ANIME PROPRICIETUR DEUS.
The other example is in the little church of Frenze, near Diss, which contains, among a number of other interesting brasses, that of a lady clothed, like the former, in gown, mantle, barbe, and veil. This figure, however, shows cuffs109; the gown is encircled with an ornamental110 girdle, and depending from the mantle on long cords ending in tassels111. Underneath112 runs the legend:
HIC JACET TUMULATA DOMINA JOHANNA
BRAHAM VIRDUA AC DEO DEDICATA. OLIM UXOREM
JOHANNIS BRAHAM ARMIGERI QUI OBIT XVIII DIE
NOVEMBRIS ANNO DOMINI MILLINO CCCCXIX CU
JUS ANIME PROPICIETUR DEUS. AMEN.
Below are three shields, of which the dexter bears the husband's arms, the sinister113 those of Dame114 Braham's family, and the middle the coats impaled115. In neither of these examples is the ring—the most important symbol—displayed on the vowess's finger. This omission116 may be explained, perhaps, by the fact that it was not buried with her, being, as we have seen, sometimes bequeathed as an heirloom and sometimes left as a gift to the Church.
Notwithstanding the desire of so many husbands that their widows should live "sole, without marriage," it is well known that second and even third marriages were not uncommon117 in the Middle Ages, and, provided that they did not involve an infraction of some solemn engagement, do not appear to have incurred118 social censure119 any more than at present.
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aloof
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| adj.远离的；冷淡的，漠不关心的 | |
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vow
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| n.誓(言)，誓约；v.起誓，立誓 | |
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vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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advert
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| vi.注意，留意，言及；n.广告 | |
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sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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evoked
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| [医]诱发的 | |
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repugnance
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| n.嫌恶 | |
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subversive
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| adj.颠覆性的，破坏性的；n.破坏份子，危险份子 | |
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immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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immorality
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| n. 不道德, 无道义 | |
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culmination
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| n.顶点；最高潮 | |
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fidelity
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| n.忠诚，忠实；精确 | |
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immolation
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| n.牺牲品 | |
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fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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ordeal
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| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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heroism
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| n.大无畏精神，英勇 | |
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consecrate
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| v.使圣化，奉…为神圣；尊崇；奉献 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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permeated
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| 弥漫( permeate的过去式和过去分词 )； 遍布； 渗入； 渗透 | |
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alludes
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| 提及，暗指( allude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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nun
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| n.修女，尼姑 | |
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chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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consonant
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| n.辅音；adj.[音]符合的 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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inscribed
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| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
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pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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eligible
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| adj.有条件被选中的；(尤指婚姻等)合适(意)的 | |
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subsist
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| vi.生存，存在，供养 | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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vowed
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| 起誓，发誓（vow的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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nuns
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| n.（通常指基督教的）修女， （佛教的）尼姑( nun的名词复数 ) | |
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espoused
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| v.（决定）支持，拥护（目标、主张等）( espouse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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spoused
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| v.配偶，夫或妻( spouse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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spouse
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| n.配偶(指夫或妻) | |
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entailed
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| 使…成为必要( entail的过去式和过去分词 )； 需要； 限定继承； 使必需 | |
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secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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inscription
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| n.（尤指石块上的）刻印文字，铭文，碑文 | |
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brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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maidenhood
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| n. 处女性, 处女时代 | |
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lawful
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| adj.法律许可的，守法的，合法的 | |
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quaintness
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| n.离奇有趣，古怪的事物 | |
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laymen
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| 门外汉，外行人( layman的名词复数 )； 普通教徒（有别于神职人员） | |
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virgins
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| 处女，童男( virgin的名词复数 )； 童贞玛利亚（耶稣之母） | |
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parables
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| n.（圣经中的）寓言故事( parable的名词复数 ) | |
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hymn
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌 | |
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wedded
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| adj.正式结婚的；渴望…的，执著于…的v.嫁，娶，（与…）结婚( wed的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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acolytes
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| n.助手( acolyte的名词复数 )；随从；新手；（天主教）侍祭 | |
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pontifical
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| adj.自以为是的，武断的 | |
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benediction
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| n.祝福；恩赐 | |
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blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mantle
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| n.斗篷，覆罩之物，罩子；v.罩住，覆盖，脸红 | |
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besought
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| v.恳求，乞求（某事物）( beseech的过去式和过去分词 )；(beseech的过去式与过去分词) | |
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solace
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| n.安慰；v.使快乐；vt.安慰(物)，缓和 | |
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tribulation
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| n.苦难，灾难 | |
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rite
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| n.典礼，惯例，习俗 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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curtailed
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| v.截断，缩短( curtail的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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forfeited
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| （因违反协议、犯规、受罚等）丧失，失去( forfeit的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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74
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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requite
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| v.报酬，报答 | |
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76
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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77
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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78
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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specified
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| adj.特定的 | |
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custody
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| n.监护，照看，羁押，拘留 | |
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relic
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| n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物 | |
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dispensed
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| v.分配( dispense的过去式和过去分词 )；施与；配（药） | |
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assented
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| 同意，赞成( assent的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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85
reminder
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| n.提醒物，纪念品；暗示，提示 | |
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86
chattels
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| n.动产，奴隶( chattel的名词复数 ) | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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88
frailty
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| n.脆弱；意志薄弱 | |
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repentance
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| n.懊悔 | |
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confirmation
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| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
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laity
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| n.俗人；门外汉 | |
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clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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delinquent
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| adj.犯法的，有过失的；n.违法者 | |
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privately
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| adv.以私人的身份，悄悄地，私下地 | |
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proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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97
penance
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| n.（赎罪的）惩罪 | |
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98
infraction
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| n.违反；违法 | |
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99
stringent
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| adj.严厉的；令人信服的；银根紧的 | |
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100
discredit
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| vt.使不可置信；n.丧失信义；不信，怀疑 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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102
sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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103
qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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104
accruing
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| v.增加( accrue的现在分词 )；（通过自然增长）产生；获得；（使钱款、债务）积累 | |
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105
blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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106
subscribe
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| vi.(to)订阅，订购；同意；vt.捐助，赞助 | |
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107
abstemious
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| adj.有节制的，节俭的 | |
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108
brasses
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| n.黄铜( brass的名词复数 )；铜管乐器；钱；黄铜饰品（尤指马挽具上的黄铜圆片） | |
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109
cuffs
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| n.袖口( cuff的名词复数 )v.掌打，拳打( cuff的第三人称单数 ) | |
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110
ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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111
tassels
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| n.穗( tassel的名词复数 )；流苏状物；（植物的）穗；玉蜀黍的穗状雄花v.抽穗， （玉米）长穗须( tassel的第三人称单数 )；使抽穗， （为了使作物茁壮生长）摘去穗状雄花；用流苏装饰 | |
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112
underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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113
sinister
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| adj.不吉利的，凶恶的，左边的 | |
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114
dame
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| n.女士 | |
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115
impaled
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| 钉在尖桩上( impale的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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116
omission
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| n.省略，删节；遗漏或省略的事物，冗长 | |
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117
uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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118
incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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119
censure
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| v./n.责备；非难；责难 | |
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