The liturgical8 origin of the miracle play may almost be taken for granted, and the single question that is likely to arise is whether the custom evolved itself from observances connected with Easter, or Christmas, or both festivals in equal or varying measure. Circumstances rather point to Paschal rites9 as the matrix of the custom. The Waking of the Sepulchre anticipates some of the features of the miracle play, while the dialogue may have been suggested by the antiphonal elements in the church services, and specifically by the colloquy10 interpolated between the Third Lesson and the Te Deum at Matins, and repeated as part of the sequence "Victim? paschalis laudes," in which two of the choir11 took the parts of St. Peter and St. John, and three others in albs those of the Three Maries. In the York Missal, in which this colloquy appears at length, its use is prescribed for the Tuesday of Easter Week.
Springing apparently12 from these germs, the religious drama gradually enlarged its bounds until it not only broke away from the few Latin verses of its first lisping, but came to embrace a whole range of Biblical history in vernacular13 rhyme. The process is so natural that we need scarcely look for contributory factors, and the influence of such experiments as the Terentian plays of the Saxon nun14 Hroswitha in the tenth century may be safely dismissed as negligible, or, at most, advanced as proof of a broad tendency, evidence of which may be traced in the "infernal pageants15" to which Godwin alludes17 in his "Life of Chaucer," and which, as regards Italy, are for ever memorable18 in connexion with the Bridge of Carrara—a story familiar to all students of Dante. These "infernal pageants" were concerned with the destiny of souls after death, and their scope being different from that of the miracle plays, they are adduced simply as marking affection for theatrical19 display in conjunction with religious sentiment.
As far as can be ascertained20, the earliest miracle play ever exhibited in England—and here it may be observed that such performances probably owed their existence or at least considerable encouragement to the system of religious brotherhood21 detailed22 in our opening chapter—was enacted23 in the year 1110 at Dunstable. Matthew Paris informs us that one Geoffrey, afterwards Abbot of St. Albans, produced at the town aforesaid the Play of St. Catherine, and that he borrowed from St. Albans copes in which to attire25 the actors. This mention of copes reminds us of the Boy-Bishop, and is one of the symptoms indicating community of origin. To this may be added that miracle plays were at first performed in churches, and, as we shall hereafter see, in some localities were never removed from their original sphere. The clergy26 also took an active share in the performances, as long as they were confined to churches; but on their emergence27 into the streets, Pope Gregory forbade the participation28 of the priests in what had ceased to be an act of public worship. This was about A.D. 1210. From that time miracle plays were regarded by the straiter sort with disfavour, and Robert Manning in his "Handlyng Sinne" (a translation of a Norman-French "Manuel de Péché") goes so far as to denounce them, if performed in "ways or greens," as "a sight of sin," though allowing that the resurrection may be played for the confirmation30 of men's faith in that greatest of mysteries. Such prejudice was by no means universal; in 1328—more than a hundred years later—we find the Bishop of Chester counselling his spiritual children to resort "in peaceable manner, with good devotion, to hear and see" the miracle plays.
We saw that the earliest religious drama known to have been performed in this country was one on St. Catherine. William Fitzstephen, in his "Life of St. Thomas à Becket," written in 1182, brings into contrast with the pagan shows of old Rome the "holier plays" of London, which he terms "representations of the miracles wrought31 by the holy confessors or of the sufferings whereby the constancy of the martyrs32 became gloriously manifest." Thus we perceive how the term "miracle" attached itself to this species of theatrical exhibitions. Probably, towards the commencement of the twelfth century, French playwrights33 fastened on the miracles of the saints as their special themes, and, by force of habit, the English public in ensuing generations retained the description, though subjects had come to be chosen other than the marvels34 of the martyrology. Dr. Ward24 would limit the term "miracle play" to those dramas based on the legends of the saints, and would describe those drawn35 from the Old and New Testaments36 as "mysteries" in conformity37 with Continental38 usage. The distinction is logical, but its acceptance would practically involve the sacrifice of the former term, since the Dunstable play of St. Catherine, the plays founded on the lives of St. Fabyan, St. Sebastian, and St. Botolph, which were performed in London, and those on St. George, acted at Windsor and Bassingbourn—no others are recorded—have all perished.
According to the "Banes," or Proclamation, of the Chester Plays, at the end of the sixteenth century, the cycle of plays acted in that city dates from the mayoralty of John Arneway (1268-76), and the author was Randall Higgenet, a monk39 of Chester Abbey. These statements are, for various reasons, open to impeachment40. For one thing, Arneway's term is incorrectly assigned to the years 1327-8—a far more probable date for the plays, though there is no sort of certainty on the subject, and, in the nature of things, a cycle of plays is more likely to have grown up than to have been the work of a single hand. The later date is more probable, because the re-institution of the Corpus Christi festival by the Council of Vienne in 1311 has an important bearing on the annexation41 of the miracle play by the trade-gilds42, and it was only on their assumption of responsibility that performances on the scale of a cycle of plays could have been contemplated43, or possible.
There are four great English cycles—those of Chester, York, Wakefield, and Coventry. By a cycle is meant a series of plays forming together what may be termed an encyclop?dia of history; it was attempted to crowd into one short day "mater from the beginning of the world." This ambitious programme bespoke44 the interested co-operation of many persons, and the gilds, embracing it with enthusiasm, transformed the Corpus Christi festival into an annual celebration marked by gorgeous pageants. The word "pageant16," which appears to be etymologically45 related to the Greek π?γμα, is technical in respect of miracle plays, and, in this connexion, is thus defined, by Archdeacon Rogers:
"A high scafolde with two rowmes, a higher and a lower, upon four wheeles. In the lower they apparelled them selves, and in the higher rowme they played, beinge all open on the tope, that all behoulders might heare and see them."
The pageants were constructed of wood and iron, and so thoroughly46 that it was seldom that they needed to be renewed. In the floor of the stage were trap-doors covered with rushes. The whole was supported on four or six wheels so as to facilitate movement from point to point; and as the miracle plays were essentially47 peripatetic—within, at least, the bounds of a particular town, and sometimes beyond—this was a very necessary provision.
Each pageant had its company. The word "company" here is not exactly synonymous with "gild," for several gilds might combine for the object of maintaining a pageant and training and entertaining actors, and the composition of the company varied48 according to the wealth or poverty, zeal49 or indifference50, of different gilds. Thus it came to pass that the number of pageants, in the same city, was subject to change, companies being sometimes subdivided51, and at other times amalgamated52; and in the latter event the actors undertook the performance of more scenes than would otherwise have fallen to their share. Commonly speaking, there was probably no lack, whether of funds or players, at any rate as regards the principal centres. The cycles were the pride of the city, and it would have been a point of honour with the members of the several companies not to allow themselves to be outclassed by their competitors.
To enumerate53 the gilds taking part in the miracle plays is tantamount to making an inventory54 of industrial crafts at the close of the Middle Ages. The "Order of the Pageants of the Play of Corpus Christi at York," compiled by Roger Burton, the town clerk, and comprising a list of the companies with their respective parts, yields the following analysis: Tanners, plasterers, card-makers, fullers, coopers, armourers, gaunters (glovers), shipwrights55, pessoners (fishmongers), mariners56, parchment-makers, book-binders, hosiers, spicers, pewterers, founders57, tylers, chandlers, orfevers (goldsmiths), marshals (shoeing-smiths), girdlers, nailers, sawyers, spurriers, lorimers (bridle-makers), barbers, vintners, fevers (smiths), curriers, ironmongers, pattern-makers, pouchmakers, bottlers, cap-makers, skinners, cutlers, bladesmiths, sheathers, sealers, buckle-makers, horners, bakers58 cordwainers, bowyers, fletchers (arrow-featherers); tapisers, couchers, littesters (dyers), cooks, water-leaders, tilemakers, millers59, twiners, turners, tunners, plumbers60, pinners, latteners, painters, butchers, poulterers, sellers (saddlers), verrours (glaziers), fuystours (makers of saddle-trees), carpenters, wine-drawers, brokers61, wool-packers, scriveners, luminers (illuminators), questors (pardoners), dubbers, tallianders (tailors), potters, drapers, weavers62, hostlers, and mercers.
The subjects of the plays were the story of the Creation, the Fall, the Deluge63, the Sacrifice of Isaac, the incidents preceding the Birth of Christ, the Nativity, and in pretty regular sequence the chief events of our Lord's life to the Ascension; and, finally, the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin64. As a rule it is hard to discern any connexion between the nature of a scene and the craft or crafts representing it, but the assignment of the pageant in which God warns Noah to make an ark to the shipwrights, and of its successor, in which the patriarch appears in the Ark, to the "pessoners" and mariners has an obvious propriety65, and must have conduced to the—not historical, but conventional—realism which was the aim of the miracle artists.
The whole town was made to serve as a huge theatre, and the many pageants proceeded in due order from station to station. "The place," says Archdeacon Rogers—he is speaking of Chester—"the place where they played was in every streete. They begane first at the abay gates and when the first pagiant was played, it was wheeled to the highe crosse before the mayor, and so to every streete; and so every streete had a pagiant playinge before them at one time, till all the pagiantes for the daye appoynted weare played; and when one pagiant was neere ended word was broughte from streete to streete, that soe they might come in place thereof excedinge orderlye, and all the streetes have their pagiantes afore them all at one time playeing togeather, to se which playe was greate resorte, and also scafoldes and stages made in the streetes in those places where they determined66 to playe their pagiantes."
Should the supply of pageants be limited, different scenes were acted in different parts of the same stage; and actors who were awaiting or had ended their parts stood on the stage unconcealed by a curtain. In more elaborate performances a scene like the "Trial of Jesus" involved the employment of two scaffolds, displaying the judgment-halls of Pilate and Herod respectively; and between them passed messengers on horseback. The plays contain occasional stage directions—e.g., "Here Herod shall rage on the pagond." We find also rude attempts at scene-shifting, of which an illustration occurs in the Coventry Play of "The Last Supper:"
"Here Cryst enteryth into the hous with his disciplis, and ete the Paschal lomb; and in the mene tyme the cownsel hous beforn seyd xal sodeynly onclose, shewynge the buschopys, prestys, and jewgys sytting in here astat, lyche as it were a convocacyon."
And again:
"Here the Buschopys partyn in the place, and eche of hem29 here leve be contenawns resortyng eche man to his place with here meny to take Cryst; and than xal the place that Cryst is in sodeynly unclose round abowt, shewynge Cryst syttyng at the table, and hise dyscypulis eche in ere degré. Cryst thus seyng."
The outlay67 on these plays was necessarily large, and the accounts of gilds and corporations prove that not only were considerable sums expended68 on the dresses of the actors, but the latter received fees for their services. The fund needed to meet these charges was raised by an annual rate levied69 on each craftsman—called "pageant money"—and varying from one penny to fourpence. The cost of housing and repairing the pageant, as well as the refreshment70 of the performers at rehearsals71, would also come out of this fund. As the actors were paid, they were expected to be efficient, and the duty of testing their qualifications was delegated either to a pageant-master or to a committee of experienced actors. A York ordinance72 dated April 3, 1476, shows that four of "the most cunning, discreet73, and able players" were summoned before the mayor during Lent for the purpose of making a thorough examination of plays, players, and pageants, and "insufficient74 persons," in whatever requirement—skill, voice, or personal appearance—their defect lay, were mercilessly "avoided." No single player was allowed to undertake more than two parts on pain of a fine of forty shillings.
From the York proclamation of 1415 we learn that the players were expected to be in their places between 3 and 4 a.m., while the prologue75 of the Coventry plays contains the lines:
At Sunday next yf that we may
At six of the belle76, we gynne our play
In N—— towne.
This is interesting, as proving that pageants were sometimes acted in a number of places, somewhat in the style of strolling players. It is known for a fact that the Grey Friars of Coventry had a cycle of Corpus Christi plays; and it has been conjectured77 that they were forced by the competition of the Trade Gilds to exhibit them outside the town. Whatever may have been the case with the players, it is certain that such plays were not confined to the centres of which we have spoken. We read of a lost Beverly cycle, and of another at Newcastle, of which one play—"The Building of the Ark"—has fortunately been preserved. Like performances took place at Witney and Preston, at Lancaster, Kendall, and Dublin. The relative perfection of Chester and Coventry, and probably of York, were bound to influence those and other towns, which looked to them as the capitals of the dramatic art. Evidence of the popularity of miracle plays in places near and remote is forthcoming in the shape of literary remains78 or parochial records. Cornwall is famous for its religious drama, to which are due the best monuments of its dead tongue; but other counties were not backward in zealous79 attachment80 to the Miracle Play. A few excerpts81 from Church-wardens' and other accounts may be given by way of showing the extent of the custom:
Ashburton, Devon
1528-9. "ixs ixd for painting cloth for the players and making their tunics82, and for 'chequery' for making tunics for the aforesaid players, and for making staves for them, and crests83 upon their heads for the festival of Corpus Christi."
1533-4. "ijd rewardyd and alowyd to the pleers of Cryssmas game, that pleyd in the said churche."
1537-8. "jd for a pair of silk garments (seroticarum) for King Herod on Corpus Christi day."
1542-3. "ijs id ij devils' heads (capit. diabol.) and necessary things in the clothes for the players."
1547-8. "ijs to the players on Corpus Christi day." (During the reign84 of Edward VI. the plays were discontinued, to be revived in that of his successor.)
1555-6. "ijd payd for a payr of glouys for hym that played God Almighty85 at Corpus Xpi daye." "vjd payd for wyne for hym that played Saynt Resinent."
1558-9. "ijd for a payr of glouys to him that played Christ on Corpus Xpi daye."
St. Martin's, Leicester
1546-7. "Item pd for makynge of a sworde & payntynge of the same for Harroode viijd"
In the Corporation MSS. of Rye, Sussex, are the following entries:
1474. "Payed to the players of Romeney, the which pleyed in the churche 16d"
1476. "Payed to the pleyers of Winchilse, the whiche pleyed in the churche yerde, vppone the day of the Purification of our Laday 16d"
The performance of the York miracle plays went on until 1579. The Newcastle celebration outlasted86 them by about ten years. The Chester plays were acted till the end of the sixteenth century, and those of Beverley till 1604. What killed the Miracle Play? This is a deeply interesting speculation87, but one with regard to which it is difficult to form a conclusion owing to the co-existence of rival influences, the relative strength of which cannot well be estimated. We have seen that Puritan opinion suspended the miracle play at Ashburton during the reign of Edward VI., and it would be natural to look for the same result from the accession of Elizabeth, whereas, at Beverley it was maintained all through the period of her rule. It is quite possible, however, that all this time efforts were being made by extreme Reformers to bring about its abolition88, and that ultimately they were successful. Meanwhile the growth of the secular89 drama, which was hardly more to the liking90 of the Puritans, must have proved a powerful counter-attraction, and possibly it is to this rather than religious opposition91 that the extinction92 of the Miracle Play was actually due. At any rate, we need feel no surprise that with two such antagonistic93 forces at work the ancient and pious94 custom vanished from the land.
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1
faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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necessitated
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| 使…成为必要，需要( necessitate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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outgrew
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| 长[发展] 得超过（某物）的范围( outgrow的过去式 )； 长[发展]得不能再要（某物）； 长得比…快； 生长速度超过 | |
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5
austere
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| adj.艰苦的；朴素的，朴实无华的；严峻的 | |
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6
restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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8
liturgical
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| adj.礼拜仪式的 | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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10
colloquy
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| n.谈话，自由讨论 | |
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11
choir
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| n.唱诗班，唱诗班的席位，合唱团，舞蹈团；v.合唱 | |
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12
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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13
vernacular
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| adj.地方的，用地方语写成的；n.白话；行话；本国语；动植物的俗名 | |
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nun
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| n.修女，尼姑 | |
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pageants
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| n.盛装的游行( pageant的名词复数 )；穿古代服装的游行；再现历史场景的娱乐活动；盛会 | |
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pageant
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| n.壮观的游行；露天历史剧 | |
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alludes
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| 提及，暗指( allude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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memorable
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| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
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theatrical
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| adj.剧场的，演戏的；做戏似的，做作的 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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enacted
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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ward
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| n.守卫，监护，病房，行政区，由监护人或法院保护的人（尤指儿童）；vt.守护，躲开 | |
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attire
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| v.穿衣，装扮[同]array；n.衣着；盛装 | |
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clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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emergence
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| n.浮现，显现，出现，（植物）突出体 | |
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participation
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| n.参与，参加，分享 | |
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hem
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| n.贴边，镶边；vt.缝贴边；(in)包围，限制 | |
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confirmation
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| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
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wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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martyrs
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| n.martyr的复数形式；烈士( martyr的名词复数 )；殉道者；殉教者；乞怜者（向人诉苦以博取同情） | |
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playwrights
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| n.剧作家( playwright的名词复数 ) | |
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marvels
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| n.奇迹( marvel的名词复数 )；令人惊奇的事物（或事例）；不平凡的成果；成就v.惊奇，对…感到惊奇( marvel的第三人称单数 ) | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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testaments
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| n.遗嘱( testament的名词复数 )；实际的证明 | |
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conformity
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| n.一致，遵从，顺从 | |
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continental
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| adj.大陆的，大陆性的，欧洲大陆的 | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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40
impeachment
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| n.弹劾；控告；怀疑 | |
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annexation
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| n.吞并，合并 | |
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gilds
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| 把…镀金( gild的第三人称单数 )； 给…上金色； 作多余的修饰（反而破坏原已完美的东西）； 画蛇添足 | |
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43
contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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44
bespoke
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| adj.（产品）订做的；专做订货的v.预定( bespeak的过去式 )；订（货）；证明；预先请求 | |
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45
etymologically
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| adv.语源上 | |
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46
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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47
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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48
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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49
zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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50
indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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51
subdivided
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| 再分，细分( subdivide的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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52
amalgamated
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| v.（使）（金属）汞齐化( amalgamate的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）合并；联合；结合 | |
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53
enumerate
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| v.列举，计算，枚举，数 | |
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54
inventory
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| n.详细目录，存货清单 | |
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55
shipwrights
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| n.造船者，修船者( shipwright的名词复数 ) | |
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mariners
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| 海员，水手（mariner的复数形式） | |
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57
founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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58
bakers
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| n.面包师( baker的名词复数 )；面包店；面包店店主；十三 | |
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millers
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| n.（尤指面粉厂的）厂主( miller的名词复数 )；磨房主；碾磨工；铣工 | |
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plumbers
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| n.管子工，水暖工( plumber的名词复数 )；[美][口]（防止泄密的）堵漏人员 | |
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brokers
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| n.（股票、外币等）经纪人( broker的名词复数 )；中间人；代理商；（订合同的）中人v.做掮客（或中人等）( broker的第三人称单数 )；作为权力经纪人进行谈判；以中间人等身份安排… | |
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weavers
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| 织工，编织者( weaver的名词复数 ) | |
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deluge
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| n./vt.洪水，暴雨，使泛滥 | |
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virgin
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| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
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propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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outlay
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| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
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expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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levied
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| 征（兵）( levy的过去式和过去分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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refreshment
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| n.恢复，精神爽快，提神之事物；（复数）refreshments:点心，茶点 | |
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71
rehearsals
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| n.练习( rehearsal的名词复数 )；排练；复述；重复 | |
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ordinance
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| n.法令；条令；条例 | |
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discreet
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| adj.(言行)谨慎的；慎重的；有判断力的 | |
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insufficient
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| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
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prologue
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| n.开场白，序言；开端，序幕 | |
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belle
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| n.靓女 | |
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conjectured
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| 推测，猜测，猜想( conjecture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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zealous
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| adj.狂热的，热心的 | |
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attachment
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| n.附属物，附件；依恋；依附 | |
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excerpts
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| n.摘录，摘要( excerpt的名词复数 )；节选（音乐，电影）片段 | |
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82
tunics
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| n.（动植物的）膜皮( tunic的名词复数 )；束腰宽松外衣；一套制服的短上衣；（天主教主教等穿的）短祭袍 | |
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crests
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| v.到达山顶（或浪峰）( crest的第三人称单数 )；到达洪峰，达到顶点 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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almighty
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| adj.全能的，万能的；很大的，很强的 | |
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outlasted
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| v.比…长久，比…活得长( outlast的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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speculation
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| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
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abolition
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| n.废除，取消 | |
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secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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liking
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| n.爱好；嗜好；喜欢 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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extinction
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| n.熄灭，消亡，消灭，灭绝，绝种 | |
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antagonistic
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| adj.敌对的 | |
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pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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