We must repeat that in sculpture also, faking borrows largely from the art of restoring. Indeed it is no exaggeration to say that nearly all branches of the faker’s art turn for help to the restorer’s methods. And here again, as in painting, we are also immediately confronted by two forms of trickery; one is the creation of a modern object in imitation of the antique so as to deceive the collector, and the other the reconstruction7 of some fantastic piece of forgery9 from an inferior object, or one greatly damaged by over-restoration. To speak of over-restoration is in such cases to use a euphemism10. We can offer an example showing how this over-restoration of objects is nothing but a form of faking highly flavoured with different varieties of deception11. A rich American bought a marble statue some years ago representing a famous Roman empress. It was bought not only because the Roman art appealed to him but as the portrait of that particular Roman empress. As a matter of fact, the whole statue had been faked by the addition of new portions to a headless, limbless torso, which was the only genuinely antique part. We must say, however, that the new head given to the half-faked statue was extremely well done. It235 had been copied from a well-known model and except that the patina of the marble was not so perfect as might have been expected from a great master in trickery, the most experienced collector might have been deceived.
Clay work is perhaps the most popular form of plastic art among the fakers of antiques. As it has the special advantage of being made from casts of originals, it does not present any real technical difficulty, and it demands no expensive additions and may be given colour and patina with comparative ease. Of course many of these advantages are also shared by bronzes, stucco, and all productions worked from an original model in clay or any other plastic substance, such as wax, pastiline, etc.
Tanagra figurines undoubtedly12 hold the first place in the large class of faked clay work. There has been an uninterrupted succession of forgers in this line from the time Tanagra work first came into fashion with collectors, to the stock imitations now sold in Paris and still bought for genuine Tanagras by over-naïve collectors. The old Baron14 Rothschild, who had a fine collection of Tanagra figurines and no small experience as a connoisseur15, used to say that when it is a question of a Tanagra one must see it excavated, and even that nowadays is hardly a guarantee of genuineness.
The imitations are generally cast from good originals, and as the clay shrinks considerably16 in drying and baking, the imitation is usually smaller than the original and can therefore easily be detected when confronted with a genuine piece.
Some of the more advanced imitators have somewhat obviated17 this difference of dimension by mechanical methods of expanding moulds, but the work in such cases is not so perfect as otherwise and what is gained on the one hand, namely, a dimension identical to that of the original, is lost on the other, as methods of taking over-sized moulds from originals are generally imperfect.
A flourishing product of the Italian market are bas-reliefs and clay busts in imitation of Renaissance work.
236 When not the work of clever artists who model direct from the clay, having studied and mastered the old style, it is the product of miserable18 mechanical deception aided by ability to disguise its patchwork19 nature, the trickery and general sleight-of-hand of the wily art of faking.
In the case of bas-reliefs they are often composed of different parts belonging to different originals, sometimes originals unknown to connoisseurs20 and art critics. This method has been applied21 to the imitation of Renaissance terra-cotta busts. A bust3 bought at a high figure from a Venetian antiquary many years ago and believed to be genuine Quattrocento work was afterwards discovered to have been made from the cast taken from the face of a recumbent figure on a tomb in the church of San Pietro e Paolo, to which had been added the back part of another bust, the whole finally set upon a pair of shoulders cast from another original of the period. The monument from which the face had been moulded was so high up on the wall of the church of San Pietro e Paolo that no one knew of the existence of this original and the other parts of the faked object had also been taken from little known originals. The fraud was discovered in Paris some time after the bust had entered a noted22 collection, a lawsuit23 ensued and the collector eventually recovered the money he had paid.
Italian art of the fifteenth century has produced many clay bas-reliefs, apparently24 from one and the same original and yet presenting slight differences, additions and modifications25 evidently made after the clay had left the mould but when it was still fresh. This fact has greatly incited26 the fancy of Italian forgers and largely contributed to the confusion of art critics and the duping of more than one collector. These bas-reliefs represent sacred subjects for the most part, and sometimes it is not merely a question of putting a rose in the Madonna’s hand or a little bird into those of the Infant Jesus, in order to lay claim to due originality28, but the modifications are so radical29 that the whole appearance of the work is changed. It is generally done as follows. A good plaster-237mould is made from a good original, and a clay reproduction formed from this mould, which is then modified and changed while still fresh. Should the work to be divested30 of its original character represent, say, a Madonna and Child, the artist may proceed to alter its size by modifying the border; then, to transform the subject, he may make an addition on one side, of the heads of the ox and ass13, taken of course from another original. To change the pose of the Madonna the clay is generally cut behind the head and neck with a fine wire and then the position of the head can be altered at pleasure; from being erect31, for instance, it can be inclined, or vice32 versa. By the same method, and no small amount of skill, arms and hands can be given new attitudes, etc. The final result is a work which passes as an original among foolish art lovers who collect series.
Stucco duro imitations are produced by almost identical methods. These compositions are generally made of plaster, which hardens as it dries after being poured into a mould. When the original is to be modified a first model of clay or some other soft modelling material is indispensable, of course, and from this a mould is then taken for the casting of the stucco duro.
To colour and give a patina either to baked clay or stucco is comparatively easy. The colouring is given with tempera colours, the patina with tinted33 water, for which tobacco, soot35, etc., may be used, applied with smoky and greasy36 hands. A coat of benzine in which a small quantity of wax has been dissolved is finally laid on with a brush and the whole polished with a brush or wool.
As we have said, however, fakers are especially partial to clay work. It requires little outlay38, the finished work can be fired at small expense, the colouring and patina can be given “at home,” not needing the special light of a studio, etc. Not only in the case of Renaissance work has this method been the favoured one but in other types of art forgery, the eighteenth-century terra-cottas, for instance, the lovely work of Clodion, Falconnet, Marin, etc. Paris is glutted238 with imitations of Clodion’s clay groups. Some of them are sufficiently39 good to puzzle the best connoisseurs. As we have seen, a pseudo-Clodion sold years ago in perfect good faith by M. Du Boullay to Mme. Boiss caused a complicated lawsuit and many inconclusive discussions among art critics and connoisseurs of the calibre of Eugène Guillaume, Chapu, Millet40, Carrier Belleuse, and specialists on Clodion’s work such as Thiacourt. It was finally established that the bit bearing Clodion’s name was authentic41 and had been inset in a group of much later date, a spurious original, but even this was not absolutely proved and simply offered as the most acceptable hypothesis. As Paul Eudel remarks, to decide the matter, “Clodion would have to raise the stone of his sepulchre and to rise from his tomb in order to supply an irrefutable solution.”
The initial process for faking antique bronzes is very similar to that used in clay and stucco forgeries42. By initial process we mean, of course, the way the mould is made for casting the bronze. When the pseudo original has been modelled in clay, the form of it is naturally taken to obtain a matrix of some harder material, and from this matrix is taken the mould that is used for the cast. There is also another system of casting bronzes greatly in vogue43 among fakers, more especially for small objects, which is called cire perdu. It is a simplified method, consisting of modelling the object in wax, then taking its mould, which is emptied by melting the wax. The details of these two methods of casting bronze, the ordinary casting and the cire perdu process, can be found in any technical work on bronze casting and need not be repeated here.
The patina of bronzes presents a difficulty in addition to the artistic44 difficulties of creating a convincing pseudo-original, difficulties common to clay, stucco, and, in fact, all faked sculpture. Patina, the nobilis ærugo of Horace, is the peculiar45 oxidization acquired by bronze with age. For the connoisseur, the patina is not only a part of the artistic tout46 ensemble47 of a bronze object—so much so that239 there are collectors more impressed by the beauty of the patina than by the artistic value of the piece—but it is the chief indication of the authenticity48 of the work.
According to Pliny, great importance was attached to the nobilis ærugo by the Roman connoisseurs also, especially in the case of the famous Corinthian bronze. This metal was classified into five qualities by the Roman amateur according to five different hues50 or patinas51 depending upon the proportion of gold and silver in the alloy52. Roman art lovers made a regular study of bronze patina and of the composition of the bronze of art objects. The components54 of this knowledge were not only gathered from the appearance of a certain bronze, but by its relative weight and the odour of the metal. That the odour of an alloy should have been made a test to judge of its component53 parts is very possible as the smell of bronze and brass55 is essentially56 different, and there is no reason why a practised Roman nose should not have distinguished57 slight differences according to the proportion of the various metals in the alloy.
One reason, apart from artistic motives58, why the collector gives the patina so much consideration is, as we have said, because the patina nowadays is one of the safest guides in buying antique bronzes. Whilst the artistic qualities of certain objects may be reproduced with skill or trickery, patina of a really genuine and entirely59 convincing appearance is supposed to be beyond the faker’s art. Our own and other people’s experience leads us to doubt this, but such, as a matter of fact, is the common belief among collectors. Faked patina, it is true, is less transparent60 and duller than the genuine, and it can easily be detected by shininess at the points and sharp edges of a bronze where it is difficult to fix the imitation patina, but, we would repeat, there are bronzes in Naples and some of the cities of Northern Italy that have deceived the best connoisseurs, and samples may be seen in nearly all the important museums of Europe and America. Almost all works treating specially37 of metal casting give various methods for obtaining a proper patina240 according to the different hues one may wish to give the bronze. Yet modern methods of colouring and oxidizing bronze do not seem to satisfy the antiquary and, in consequence, the faker of antique bronzes. All modern mechanical methods produce fine colouring without brilliancy, colouring that does not seem to possess the vibrant61 quality of old patina, oxidation that appears to be too superficial to show the depth of colouring peculiar to patina obtained by the slow process of age. To obtain such an effect the faker resorts to the most varied62 and out-of-the-way methods, and when possible tries to hasten the slow oxidation of age by greasing and smoking the object, putting it in damp places and treating it with acids. Often the most varied methods are used in conjunction or alternately with a patience and persistence63 worthy64 of a more honourable65 cause, but practised with ever-greater keenness, alas66, with the promise of much gain. Some of the most successful patinas are obtained not only by duly working at the colouring and oxidation of the metal, but by composing the alloy in such a way as to favour the production of a convincing patina later on.
Naturally, the differences of the patina of old bronzes depend not only upon the various conditions to which the work may have been exposed through age, but also upon the colouring or kind of artificial oxidation that may have been given it upon leaving the foundry.
Photo
An Imitation of Roman Work.
Latest part of XIVth Century
Alinari
An Imitation of 16th Century Work.
Thus whilst an antique bronze brought up from the bottom of the sea may have the peculiar patina of age acquired under these special conditions and another statue exposed only to atmospheric67 oxidation may show the different hue49 belonging to the effect of air, there are bronzes which have been coloured upon leaving the foundry, and even when age has given brilliance68 to the patina they bear the characteristics differentiating69 the school or artist. The most difficult to imitate are the excavated Greek, Roman or Etruscan bronzes, especially when the humidity of the soil or some peculiar condition has produced a kind of patina possessing241 the appearance of enamel70. Among the artificial hues of Renaissance bronze, the brownish tint34 of the Paduan school is characteristic, and worthy of note are some of the blackish specimens71 of Venetian bronze, as well as the whole emporium of samples of the versatile72 Florentine school. Some of these patinæ are reproduced fairly well, and now that Gianbologna and his school are beginning to be appreciated, we would state that faking is successfully studied to produce the reddish patina of some of the not always exquisite73 but yet invariably interesting little bronzes of Tacca Susini Francavilla and others.
It was once believed by some collectors that gilded bronze could not be imitated, that the galvanoplastic method was as recognizable as any false and badly made coin. We doubt this, for we fail to see why the old system of gilding74 with mercury could not be applied to imitations. It is somewhat slower and more expensive, but the profit, as usual, makes it worth while in the eyes of the faker. Gilding is certainly imitated to perfection on modern pieces purporting75 to be the work of French artists of the eighteenth century and some of the counterfeits77 of Gutierrez’ and Caffieri’s work have even the varnish78 that was at one time considered inimitable.
The great progress made in imitating patina, has rendered the collecting of bronzes one of the most dangerous branches the collector can choose.
In the case of marble, stone or other hard material that has to be chiselled80, the faker generally starts his work along the lines of the sculptor81, that is to say, he models the original in clay, casts it in plaster and transfers it to the marble by the usual methods. Then when this artistic part has been accomplished82 successfully, the marble or stone must be given the appearance of antiquity83 and the patina belonging to age. This is generally effected by two distinct operations, one relating to the form, the other to the colour and the whole peculiar harmonization of tone and polish called patina. As regards the form, modern sculpture being somewhat too242 precise and sharp-edged, the chief aim of the operation is to destroy these qualities, as well as to confer upon the object the abuse that is supposed to be traced upon an antique during its long pilgrimage through the ages. The marble is therefore skilfully84 chipped here and there with mallet85 and chisel79, sand and acid are applied to dull the over-sharp tooling, and sometimes to cause corrosion86, etc. The principle accepted, it is easy to understand that ways of ageing sculpture are multiplied, and vary according to the illusion the faker intends to convey. The fact that old Greek and Roman work is not identical with Renaissance productions in appearance, as the former are generally excavated while the latter come down to us through a long succession of owners, is sufficient to show that there are slight differences which must be taken into consideration.
For colouring marble and stone, a general tone is usually given at first which is intended to destroy the crudeness of the new material, especially in the case of marble. One of the most common ways is to wash the object with water containing a certain quantity of green vitriol. When applied before the stone has lost its permeability, this solution penetrates87 deeply, particularly in marble, and the colouring is not easily destroyed or washed out by long exposure to atmospheric action. Some use nitrate of silver also when a different hue is to be given, but the solution mentioned first, which confers the proper ivory tone to the marble, is the most common. Naturally, a tone given by these means is too uniform and monotonous88 to be taken for the colouring of old age, so the artist calls his talent and experience into play to produce the desired variation; there is, in fact, no other teaching but experience and taste. It is to be noted that in the colouring of stone, and particularly marble, the artist has an almost complete palette at his disposal, for in this branch chemistry supplies nearly every hue possible.
We may remark by the way that the art of colouring marble was already well understood in the days of ancient Greece, and it is a fact that more than one statue of that243 period shows signs of colouring wonderfully preserved through the ages. In Italy, where marble dyeing is still a flourishing art, it is done with very few colours: verdigris89, gamboge, dragon’s-blood, cochineal, redwood and logwood.
Nearly all vegetable dyes are suitable, and many coal-tar colours, if properly used, give a very fast and beautiful colour to marble. It is essential for the solution of all dyes to be made with alcohol or ether, and only such anilines may be employed as are soluble90 in fat. Some solutions may be applied direct to the marble, whatever its temperature; others require the heating of the marble, to increase its permeability and consequent faculty91 of imbibing92 the colouring solution. The quality and condition of the marble must also be taken into consideration. If the marble has not been polished properly, or has been touched with greasy hands, a patchy effect or stains will result.
Rubbing with flannel93 and the moderate use of encaustic, give the finishing touches, when the character of the patina requires the shiny effect so often seen in old marbles.
Objects sculptured in wood represent no change of technique for the forger8 of antiques as far as the carving94 is concerned. The forger’s ability to imitate the work of an old master is purely95 artistic, and cannot, of course, be achieved by any special method; but the art of giving the object a convincing appearance of age is fairly mechanical, depending upon the use of alkali, permanganate of potash and other substances. The process being somewhat complex and common, as a matter of fact, to all kinds of wood carving, it will be given in detail when imitation antique furniture and the methods of producing it are described; faked furniture being, perhaps, one of the most productive branches of the obscure trade of counterfeit76 antiques. Sometimes artistic figures or bas-reliefs in wood are either coloured or gilded. In the case of polychromatic work, the wood is generally coated with a plaster preparation to receive the colour, and the technique for ageing or giving a patina is that already described for stucco or clay work; in the244 case of gilding, the appearance of age is given to the new gold by colour veiling, also liquorice juice and burnt paper are used with advantage applied to the gold with a soft brush.
Ivory work too, which represents one of the most dangerous fields to neophytic enterprise, requires no special technique in counterfeiting96 as far as the artistic creation is concerned. It must also be tempting97 to the carver as a material, for certain naïve effects of primitive98 art seem aided by the essential qualities of the ivory, its fibrous constitution in particular. One may safely say that there is nowadays hardly a single genuine Byzantine Christ; there are, however, plenty on the market of course.
The old cracks of antique ivory are very easily imitated. There is more than one method for producing them, the most common is to plunge99 the piece into boiling water and then dry quickly before a fire. The operation can of course be repeated until the desired effect is attained101. Here also smoke and tobacco-juice can perform miracles. Sometimes ivory pieces are placed in a fermenting102 heap of fertilizer or wet hay. The methods are, in fact, most varied, and an inventive spirit seems of great assistance to the faker in devising new schemes every day.
We now come to the last class of this chapter, ceroplastics, which includes all forms of modelled wax, small bas-reliefs supposed to have been the originals of plaquettes, little family portraits in coloured wax, etc. In this branch, patina and complicated methods to attain100 an appearance of age hardly come into consideration, a mere27 touch of the hand is at times sufficient to stain the wax, and work of this kind takes the colouring so readily after it is modelled that no craft is needed in imitating old wax work, provided the artist is able to imitate the antique handiwork. Besides, wax portraits have been for the most part kept under glass and have come down to us as fresh as though made yesterday, not only those of a century or two ago but also those that have reached a most respectable centennial age. Wax work is one of the245 easiest to imitate and one of the most difficult to detect when imitated. We are therefore inclined to advise the freshman103 collector to abstain104 from buying this kind of work, unless irrefutable documentary evidence is offered in the shape of a well-authenticated pedigree of the work.
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1
renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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busts
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| 半身雕塑像( bust的名词复数 )； 妇女的胸部； 胸围； 突击搜捕 | |
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bust
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| vt.打破；vi.爆裂；n.半身像；胸部 | |
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patina
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| n.铜器上的绿锈，年久而产生的光泽 | |
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excavated
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| v.挖掘( excavate的过去式和过去分词 )；开凿；挖出；发掘 | |
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gilded
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| a.镀金的，富有的 | |
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reconstruction
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| n.重建，再现，复原 | |
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forger
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| v.伪造；n.（钱、文件等的）伪造者 | |
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forgery
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| n.伪造的文件等，赝品，伪造（行为） | |
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euphemism
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| n.婉言，委婉的说法 | |
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deception
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| n.欺骗，欺诈；骗局，诡计 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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ass
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| n.驴；傻瓜，蠢笨的人 | |
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baron
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| n.男爵；(商业界等)巨头，大王 | |
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connoisseur
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| n.鉴赏家，行家，内行 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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obviated
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| v.避免，消除（贫困、不方便等）( obviate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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patchwork
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| n.混杂物；拼缝物 | |
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connoisseurs
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| n.鉴赏家，鉴定家，行家( connoisseur的名词复数 ) | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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lawsuit
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| n.诉讼，控诉 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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incited
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| 刺激，激励，煽动( incite的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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originality
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| n.创造力，独创性；新颖 | |
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radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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divested
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| v.剥夺( divest的过去式和过去分词 )；脱去（衣服）；2。从…取去…；1。（给某人）脱衣服 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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tinted
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| adj. 带色彩的 动词tint的过去式和过去分词 | |
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tint
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| n.淡色，浅色；染发剂；vt.着以淡淡的颜色 | |
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soot
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| n.煤烟，烟尘；vt.熏以煤烟 | |
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greasy
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| adj. 多脂的，油脂的 | |
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specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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outlay
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| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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millet
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| n.小米，谷子 | |
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authentic
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| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
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forgeries
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| 伪造( forgery的名词复数 )； 伪造的文件、签名等 | |
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Vogue
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| n.时髦，时尚；adj.流行的 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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tout
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| v.推销，招徕；兜售；吹捧，劝诱 | |
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ensemble
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| n.合奏(唱)组；全套服装；整体，总效果 | |
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authenticity
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| n.真实性 | |
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hue
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| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
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hues
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| 色彩( hue的名词复数 )； 色调； 信仰； 观点 | |
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patinas
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| n.（青铜器上的）铜绿( patina的名词复数 )；绿锈；（旧木器等表面）年久而产生的光泽；神情 | |
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alloy
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| n.合金，(金属的)成色 | |
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component
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| n.组成部分，成分，元件；adj.组成的，合成的 | |
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components
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| （机器、设备等的）构成要素，零件，成分； 成分( component的名词复数 )； [物理化学]组分； [数学]分量； （混合物的）组成部分 | |
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brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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transparent
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| adj.明显的，无疑的；透明的 | |
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vibrant
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| adj.震颤的，响亮的，充满活力的，精力充沛的，(色彩)鲜明的 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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persistence
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| n.坚持，持续，存留 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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atmospheric
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| adj.大气的，空气的；大气层的；大气所引起的 | |
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brilliance
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| n.光辉，辉煌，壮丽，（卓越的）才华，才智 | |
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differentiating
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| [计] 微分的 | |
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enamel
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| n.珐琅，搪瓷，瓷釉；(牙齿的)珐琅质 | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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versatile
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| adj.通用的，万用的；多才多艺的，多方面的 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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gilding
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| n.贴金箔，镀金 | |
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purporting
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| v.声称是…，（装得）像是…的样子( purport的现在分词 ) | |
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counterfeit
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| vt.伪造，仿造；adj.伪造的，假冒的 | |
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counterfeits
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| v.仿制，造假( counterfeit的第三人称单数 ) | |
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varnish
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| n.清漆；v.上清漆；粉饰 | |
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chisel
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| n.凿子；v.用凿子刻，雕，凿 | |
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chiselled
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| adj.凿过的，凿光的； （文章等）精心雕琢的v.凿，雕，镌( chisel的过去式 ) | |
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sculptor
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| n.雕刻家，雕刻家 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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skilfully
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| adv. (美skillfully)熟练地 | |
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mallet
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| n.槌棒 | |
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corrosion
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| n.腐蚀，侵蚀；渐渐毁坏，渐衰 | |
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penetrates
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| v.穿过( penetrate的第三人称单数 )；刺入；了解；渗透 | |
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monotonous
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| adj.单调的，一成不变的，使人厌倦的 | |
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verdigris
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| n.铜锈；铜绿 | |
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soluble
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| adj.可溶的；可以解决的 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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imbibing
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| v.吸收( imbibe的现在分词 )；喝；吸取；吸气 | |
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flannel
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| n.法兰绒；法兰绒衣服 | |
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carving
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| n.雕刻品，雕花 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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counterfeiting
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| n.伪造v.仿制，造假( counterfeit的现在分词 ) | |
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tempting
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| a.诱人的, 吸引人的 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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plunge
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| v.跳入，(使)投入，(使)陷入；猛冲 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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fermenting
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| v.（使）发酵( ferment的现在分词 )；（使）激动；骚动；骚扰 | |
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103
freshman
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| n.大学一年级学生(可兼指男女) | |
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abstain
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| v.自制，戒绝，弃权，避免 | |
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