And my Australian eyes were not the only ones that saw the people so. E. Nesbit, who writes so charmingly, once wrote a story in which the children, either by means of a magic carpet or a reanimated phoenix4, brought back Queen Semiramis to visit the earth and took her for a ride on top of an omnibus through the London streets.
“How badly you keep your slaves?” said the Queen.
“Oh, there are no slaves in England,” said the children. I quote from memory but this is the gist5 of the story.
“Stuff and nonsense, children!” said the Queen. “Don’t tell me! Think I don’t know a slave when I see him!”
E. Nesbit is quite right. We cannot see fairly and in their true colours the things to which use has deadened our sensibilities. It must have seemed quite natural for the planters of Jamaica to be pleased when a slave ship arrived. The news would go round at once, and as the ships were not very big they came to ports that only a coaster visits nowadays. To Kingston, of course, to Montego Bay, but they also went to Savanna8 la Mar9 and to Black River and other places that dream idly in the sunshine now and get their stores by motor boats and schooners10.
Probably the planter grumbled11 and growled13 and said the stench of such a ship was enough to knock you down, and that he hated the job, but he had to have hands, and in a way he enjoyed the outing and the gathering14 together of his own kind. No one, I think, for one moment thought of the sufferings of the slaves; they grumbled, as men do nowadays because a pig-stye smells. Occasionally a farmer, wiser than the rest, declares the swine should be kept clean, but one and all, grumblers and wise men, are sure they need bacon. And so it was with the sale of the black cattle.
They were savages15. Occasionally, perhaps, a highly bred and educated man from the north might be mixed up with them, but as a rule the slaves imported were the merest barbarians17. It is no good thinking they were anything else. It is true enough what the advocates of slavery always maintained, that through their enslaving they did get a glimpse of better things. An Ashanti woman with her shaven head and a cloth wrapped round her middle, beating fu-fu, is certainly not as far advanced in the social scale as the milkmaid clambering down the steep hillside to Montego Bay and saving her pennies to buy herself smart clothes in which to go to church. But it is also certain that the men who imported her forbears were thinking only of their own convenience.
There was a tremendous cleaning up on board on arrival; salt water was aplenty, and the slaves were doctored, their sores were attended to, and they were given palm oil and coconut18 oil with which to anoint themselves. They must have been thankful to come out of their cramped19 quarters and bask20 on deck in the sunshine, but they must have feared. One historian has left it on record that the planters who came down to buy had often celebrated21 the arrival and were so gloriously drunk that the scramble22 for the goods was disgraceful and the unfortunate Helots must have thought they had fallen into the hands of cannibals and were to be despatched forthwith.
The planters, when they were able, visited the ships to see the new importations and decide for which they should bid at the coming sale, but in later times the slaves were taken straight to the vendue master and sold in the public slave market. There used to be a large slave market at Montego Bay, quite close to the water, so that the merchandise might be rowed ashore23, and the gentlemen from Success and Contentment and Retrieve24, from Iron Shore and Retirement25 and True Friendship—thus they name plantations27 in Jamaica—came crowding to fill up the gaps in their hands, to buy Madam a serving wench, or young master a boy to wait upon him.
They stood there in rows, naked savages, men and women with clean cloths round their loins, and boys and girls stark28. Their shackles29 had generally been struck off because a quiet and peaceable slave was more valued than one who had to be kept in restraint. There were shade trees growing round the marketplace, and the sun flickered30 down through their leaves and made patterns on the shapely dark bodies, and the buyers examined them exactly as they would have examined a horse or a cow they wanted to buy.
The buyers had certain preferences. In spite of an evil reputation, “the Koromantyns,” says Bryan Edwards, “are distinguished31 from all others by firmness both of body and mind, a ferociousness32 of disposition33; but withal, activity, courage, and stubbornness,” and this, while it made them dangerous, made them good labourers. The Papams or Whidahs, those who came from the coasts between Accra and all along by Keta and Togoland and Dahomey, “are accounted most docile34.” The Eboes from Calabar and the swamps round the mouths of the Niger “were valued the least, being feeble, timid, despairing creatures, who not infrequently used to commit suicide in their dejection,” which perhaps was not surprising if they could not work and knew what they had to expect if they did not.
The people from the Gaboon country, at the bottom of the Gulf35 of Guinea, were said to be invariably ill-disposed, and lastly, those from the Congo and farther south from the coasts of Angola, though counted less robust36 than the other negroes, were more handy as mechanics, and more trustworthy. So the gentlemen, crowding to the sales, had some idea of the quality of the goods they had come to buy.
The value of a slave increased as the years went on. In 1689, I believe, a slave could be bought for ￡7, but of course ￡7 was a great deal more money then than it is now. Then a good negro rose to ￡20. In 1750 a planter writes, “Bought ten negroes at ￡50 each”—which, Edwards says, was the common price in 1791; boys and girls cost from ￡40 to ￡45, while an infant was worth ￡5. After that they rose in value rapidly, and before Edwards had finished his history in his estimate of the expenses of a sugar plantation26, he values the negroes at ￡70 apiece; while in 1832, just before the Emancipation38, when the planters expected compensation for the loss of their labour, the value of a slave sometimes rose as high as ￡110 per man.
Because of the perquisites39 of the officers, only the healthy slaves were offered for sale at first, but the sick, injured, and weakly were by no means wasted. Indeed, even in those hard-bitten times, the disposal of the sickly slaves was often considered a scandal. They were generally bought up by speculators who sometimes tended them, sometimes did not, simply made what they could out of them. If the lot of the healthy slaves was hard, that of the newly arrived and sickly was terrible, till death released them from their sufferings. And in every ship we may be sure there were sick.
I do not find any record of slave risings on the arrival of the ships. It seems as if the black men, dazed and frightened, unaccustomed to their new surroundings, submitted quietly enough. It was not until they were on the estates, had time to look round them, had hoes and knives and machetes put into their hands, that they realised the comparative weakness of the whites, and the chance they had of freedom. They might be met any day, a band of stalwart black savages clad only in loin cloths, the women, apart with their babies seated on their hips7, leading older children by the hand, marching along the white roads, clambering up the steep mountain paths to the estate that was to be their destination, with a white man on horseback following slowly, and one, or two, or three black drivers, according to the number of the new slaves, with whips, old slaves who could be trusted, marshalling them. Sometimes they sang, and always they went better to some sort of music, but I do not think they were often very rebellious40. The first bitterness of the enslavement had passed. Here was solid ground beneath their feet again, a companion they were accustomed to, beside them, pleasant sunshine and a cooling breeze, and it might be worth their while to see what the future held for them.
Arrived at the estate, the newcomers were very often handed over individually to some slave accustomed to the plantation, who showed them the ropes, and possibly heard tales of the country from which he had been torn long ago.
They were practically dumb these first comers. They did not understand the language; even the old hands only grasped the words of command, and though they thoroughly41 understood the uses to which a knife might be put, a hoe they would certainly regard as a woman’s implement42.
Of course their masters took no heed43 of that, any more than they considered the slave’s feelings when they made over a fierce Ashanti or Mendi warrior44 to a mild Joloff, or gave a Mandingo from the north, who was likely to be a Mohammedan and might even be able to read and write Arabic, into the charge of an Eboe, who was a savage16 pure and simple, and probably remained a savage after years of plantation labour. To do them justice, I expect these gentlemen from Amity45, or Rose Hall, or Good Hope, had about as much idea of the map of Africa as I have of the contour of the Antarctic Continent—less very likely; and that these people were separated as widely by the countries of their birth as they themselves were from England, never occurred to them. I don’t suppose they would have bothered if it had. But certain differences were forced upon them. And for the proper working of their plantations, they must needs take note of those differences. As a rule, they were not intentionally46 cruel, but they regarded the slaves as chattels47.
There is a story told by Bryan Edwards, to illustrate48 the superior pluck of the Koromantyns, but it also shows us the standing49 of a slave very well indeed:—
“A gentleman of my acquaintance who had purchased at the same time ten Koromantyn boys, and the like number of Eboes, the eldest50 of the whole apparently51 not more than thirteen years of age—caused them all to be collected and brought before him in my presence to be marked on the breast. This operation is performed by heating a small silver brand, composed of one or two letters, in the flame of spirits of wine, and applying it to the skin which is previously53 anointed with sweet oil. The application is instantaneous and the pain momentary55.” So Mr Bryan Edwards but he was in no danger from a branding iron. “Nevertheless, it may be easily supposed that the apparatus56 must have a frightful57 appearance to a child. Accordingly, when the first boy, who happened to be one of the Eboes, and the stoutest58 of the whole, was led forward to receive the mark, he screamed dreadfully, while his companions of the same nation manifested strong emotions of sympathetic terror. The gentleman stopped his hand. But the Koromantyn boys, laughing aloud, and immediately coming forward of their own accord, offered their bosoms60 undauntedly to the brand, and receiving its impression without flinching61 in the least, snapped their fingers in exultation62 over the poor Eboes.”
The natives of Africa are often much worse marked than any small silver brand could mark them merely by way of ornament63, and many a time do we see white men who have submitted to the more painful operation of tattooing64 merely for—well, when I’m put to it I really don’t know why a white man allows himself to be tattooed65.
You will find it said that the majority of people were good to their slaves, that it was their interest to be good to them. True, but unfortunately we have only to look round us to see how often nowadays a horse, or indeed any helpless creature dependent upon some careless man’s good-will, is ill-used, even though ultimately that ill-usage means a loss to the owner. And so it was in Jamaica: a man did the best he could for his slaves, his favourites were pampered66, but when it came to a pinch the slaves suffered. There was a terrible famine in Jamaica in the latter half of the eighteenth century; England had decreed that there should be no trade with her revolted colonies, supplies were therefore more restricted than they need have been, and it is recorded that the slaves died by thousands. Again and again we are told how, even in normal times, the slave spent his midday rest hour either in the bush picking berries and wild fruits with which to supplement his scanty67 fare, or else in searching the rubbish heap at the planters’ door for gnawed68 bones which were ground small and boiled down to get what sustenance69 there was in them. No one troubled about a slave; some men would get a reputation for ill-treating their slaves, but no one thought of interfering70.
Besides, as I have remarked before, the pens and estates were so isolated71. Anything might have happened to a slave on one of those estates, and it would have been long before rumour72 carried the tale to the next estate.
And there was another side of the picture, the side at which the planter looked, especially when he thought of bringing a wife to his lonely Great House set high on a hill-top or a jutting74 rock. He was surrounded by some hundreds of these alien people, dumbly resentful of their condition—he didn’t put it like that—ill-conditioned ruffians he probably called them, and he never knew when the worst might not influence the rest. And they were armed with machetes and knives and hoes and spades, for purposes of agriculture certainly, but agricultural implements75 make excellent weapons of offence in the hands of a fierce Timini or Krobo warrior. “He travels the fastest who travels alone,” as Kipling sings, and many a man thanked God he had no wife or children.
He took to himself one of the dark women, and in later times there were the mulattoes and quadroons to be had for the choosing.
We can easily see why the presence of a white woman was resented upon an estate. If the owner chose to live with some brown or yellow girl he naturally objected to his underlings choosing a mode of life which would be a reproach to him, and if he brought out a wife all those who had no wives felt that Madam exercised an undue76 espionage77 over their mode of life.
“In my drive this morning met several of the unfortunate half black progeny78 of some of our staff,” writes Lady Nugent, “all in fine muslin lace, &c., with wreaths of flowers in their hats. What ruin for these worse than thoughtless, young men.” If she wrote thus, she probably did not refrain from comment at the time, and doubtless her comment was resented.
“Soon after my arrival,” writes Matthew Lewis, “I asked my attorney” (an attorney in Jamaica is the man who manages the estate for an absentee owner) “whether a clever-looking woman who seemed to have great authority in the house belonged to me.”
“‘No, she was a free woman.’
“‘Was she in my service then?’
“‘No, she was not in my service; I began to grow impatient.
“‘But what does she do at Cornwall? Of what use is she in the house?’
“‘Why, sir, as to use, of great use, sir’; and then, after a pause, added in a lower voice, ‘It is the custom, sir, for unmarried men to have housekeepers79, and Nancy is mine.’”
Lewis wrote in the second decade of the nineteenth century a little after Lady Nugent, and putting all these little stories together, we get a complete picture of the Jamaican estate as it must have been for close on two hundred years.
The black people, naked at first and later clad in rags, lived in a little village some distance from the Great House where dwelt their master, and the bond between them was the woman he took from amongst them for his convenience. The villages were of palm-thatched houses with walls of swish or of wattle, and were very often surrounded by a wall, for if the owner valued his privacy so did the dweller80 in the village, and presently around them grew up a grove81 of trees planted by the negro sometimes by design, sometimes by accident; there were coconut palms and naseberries, tall leafy trees, and by the beginning of the nineteenth century, thanks to Bligh and Marshall, breadfruit and mango trees, the handsomest trees, perhaps, that bear fruit, and there were oranges and lemons with their fragrant82 blossoms.
“I never witnessed on the stage a scene,” says Lewis, “so picturesque83 as a negro village.... If I were to decide according to my own taste I should infinitely84 have preferred their habitations to my own. Each house is surrounded by a separate garden, and the whole village is intersected by lanes bordered with all kinds of sweet-smelling and flowering plants.” Certainly he was fortunate. The villages on his estate must have been model ones. I have been up and down the land and I have never seen a negro village that in my eyes did not badly need cleaning up. There is no reason why the houses should not be delightful85, but they are not. In those old days, the days long before Lewis, they were a danger, of course. Of sanitation86 there was none. Even now about a peasant’s house in Jamaica there is often an unpleasant smell from the rotting waste that is scattered87 around; then it must have been much worse, but what could you expect, when the masters themselves regarded bad smells and rotting waste as all in the day’s work? In the old slave-trading castles on the Guinea Coast there was always a well in the courtyard, a very necessary precaution, surrounded as the traders were by hostile tribes, but they also buried their dead in the courtyard and it never seems to have occurred to them that by such a practice they might possibly be arranging for a constant supply of graves. Sloane, I think it is, puts it on paper that, but for the John Crows—a small vulture—he does not think the towns in Jamaica would have been habitable.
The fields where the slaves grew cassava and yams and chochos and cocos were usually at some distance from the village, “on the mountain,” which meant the rougher and more stony88 hill ground at a distance from the Great House. According to custom one acre of ground was planted for every five negroes, and they were allowed to work on it one day a week.
And very gradually, the descendants of the naked savages who had been brought so unwillingly89 came to feel that they belonged to the land—it was their country. It was said that all the outbreaks were led by the newly-imported slaves, and that the Creoles, those born in the colony, were contented90 enough. They had many wrongs, but undoubtedly they loved the place of their birth, and felt deeply being sent away or sold. They pitied, as from a higher plane, the book-keeper who had to go. It is curious to learn that when a white underling was dismissed, the gangs—these slaves who must stay whether they liked it or not—would sing:
“Massa turn poor buckra away ho!
But Massa can’t turn poor neger away oh!”
We see that they must have looked at their position from a different view-point from that we naturally take now.
I have read through two or three books of records of such estates as Worthy37 Park and Rose Hall, and in them the slaves are enumerated91 in exactly the same fashion as the cattle on the next page. The Worthy Park book I found specially73 interesting. It was an old brown leather-covered book, 18 inches long by 1 foot broad, and round it clung—or so it seemed to me—an unrestful emanation, as if the men who wrote in it were discontented and found life a vexatious thing.
This slave book begins—and the beginning is written in a very clear clerkly hand; I expect my grandmother would have placed the writer’s status exactly—with a description of the lands, 3150 acres, held by the original owner of Worthy Park, John Price, Esq., of Penzance, England; he was an absentee owner, and there is no record in the book of his ever having visited his estate. George Doubt was the superintendent92, and lived at the Great House; but whether it was he who made those first entries, there is no means of knowing. He certainly did not make them all, for the handwriting varies, and there were no less than six overseers in the five years, the book records, between 1787 and 1792. And the ink and the paper reflect credit on the makers93, for though browned with time the writing is perfectly95 legible, and the pages are stout59 still.
Once the limits of the estate are laid down, we come to the stock upon it—the negroes, the mules96, the horses, the oxen; and every quarter returns were made to the Vestry of the Parish. This, I think, because a tax of 6d. a head had to be paid upon every slave; and for the safety of the public a certain number of white men had to be kept, capable of bearing arms.
The white men were always changing, with the exception of George Doubt, so I conclude either that that superintendent was a hard man, or that John Price, comfortable in his English home, drove him hard; for even for those times the pay seems to have been poor. What Doubt got I do not know, but the overseer got ￡200 a year, and of course his board and lodging98; the surgeon got ￡140 per annum; the book-keeper and distiller ￡50 per annum, and the ordinary book-keepers ￡30 per annum each. It was no catch to be a book-keeper in those days. As a rule he had nothing to do with books, but he did all the little jobs that could not be entrusted99 to the slaves. He served out the corn for the feeding of the fowls100, kept count of the rats that were killed, and went into the cane-fields with the negro drivers. He had to be out in the fields so early that his breakfast was sent out to him.
A negro wench, complained a long-suffering young man, brought him his breakfast—a bottle of cold coffee, two herrings, and a couple of boiled plantains stuck on a fork. It does not sound luxurious101, and ￡30 a year did not hold out much hope of bettering himself.
Among the stock the negroes come before the cattle, and are described in much the same language.
“A General List of Negroes on, and belonging to, Worthy Park Plantation, taken the 1st January 1787.”
The page is divided into three columns, headed respectively, “Names, Qualifications, and Conditions”; and underneath102, “Quashie, Head Carpenter, Able,” at the top of a long list that is never less than 340 and sometimes rises to 360 names. There were 6 Carpenters, numbering among them Mulatto Aleck, and 2 learning; there were 2 Sawyers, 1 Joiner and Cabinet Maker94, 1 Blacksmith, Mulatto John, 1 Mason, Mulatto Billy, and 1 learning, 3 Drivers, 1 man in the Garden who was marked Old and Infirm, 5 Wain men, 3 Boilers103, a Head mule97 man, and 138 others, ending with children too young to be of any use.
The names are various, and do not differ very much from those of the cattle numbered a few pages further on. Prussia, the Head mule man, is Able, Minuith is Distemper’d, and eight Macs, beginning with MacDonald, and ending with MacLean, are all Able. Nero is a field-labourer and Able, and Don’t Care, a wain man, is Able. Further on there is a steer105 named Why Not? Waller, the Head boiler104, is sickly, and Johnston, a field-labourer, is subject to “Fitts.” Dryden is Able, but Elderly. Punch and Bacchus are Elderly and Weakly, which seems wrong somehow, and Ishmael is Infirm and a Runaway106. Italy is Able, Spain is Distemper’d, and Portugal is Weakly. Germany is Old and Weak. Quaco’s Jumbo is subject to Sores, and Creole Cuba’s Cuffie is Weakly and a notorious Runaway. Poor Pope is lame52 in one hand, and so is Homer, while Kent, Duke, Guy, Prince, John, Morrice, and James, are “all of no use, being too young.”
Then we come to the women. There are 141 of them, 64 Field Labourers, 44 of whom are Able. Grace is a Driver and Elderly, and Delia and Dilligence are both Elderly. Baddo and Creole Betty are Old and Weakly, Lilly is Elderly and Sickly. Little Dido is “Weakly & Runaway.” Woman is Field Cook for the Small Gang, Silvia is Nurse to the young Children in the Field. Luida’s Nancy is “Superunuated.” Little Yabba is lame in her hip6, Chloe is Weakly and Worthless. Little Benebah is Runaway and Worthless, Strumpet is Able, a Runaway—could one expect much from a woman called by such a name?—and that Whore was also Runaway and Worthless seems but a confirmation107 of the old saying about giving a dog a bad name and hanging him. But Lady, too, is Runaway; perhaps she was sickly and not equal to the work they expected of her. We may judge that the writer who recorded those dead-and-gone black labourers was not a lettered man, for he writes down Psyche108, “Sychke.” But Psyche has always been a difficulty. Miss Maxwell Hall on Kempshot Pen has a cow so named, and periodically she goes through her cattle with her headman. She keeps her list and he presents his. Psyche he had written “Sikey,” and the young lady coming upon it among the “S’s” murmured to herself:—
“Psyche, yes, ‘p,’ of course.” He was an observant man, and the next time the list was presented to her Psyche had been written “Spikey”!
Perhaps the overseer did not do so badly with “Syclike.”
Little Abba, a field cook, has lost one hand. Apparently they did not trouble much about the field-labourer’s food, hardly more than they did about the book-keeper’s. Simbry is Elderly and a Gandy, which appears to have been a midwife. Poor Pallas is weakly. Sicily, old and weakly, cuts grass for the stables; Abbas Moll, Invalid109, “Sores,” washes the bags. I hope they weren’t used for anything important. Olive is blind, and no less than thirteen are “superunuated,” while twenty-eight, among them Behaviour, Friendship, and Phebas, are “of no use, being very young.” Later on, “Little Friendship’s” death of fever and a sore throat is recorded. Here, too, are Quadroon Kitty, Quadroon Molly, and Quadroon Bessy, nearer the white man than the black but still slaves.
George Doubt expended110 his negroes freely.... Thirty negroes, fifteen men and fifteen women, were bought on the 2nd March 1787. They were “late the property of Mr Alex. Stanhope dec’d, bo’t of Edward Brailsford, Esq.” Why the difference in the titles I don’t know. They were all marked “Able” when they were bought, but in 1789 the men are reduced to thirteen, and Toby, who was a Mason, is now old and infirm; England, a sawyer, is old and infirm; Roger, a field negro, is now “little worth”; Dick is sickly and C?sar is Able, but evidently he did not like Worthy Park, for he is always running away. Prince, now in the overseer’s stables, is of little worth; Cuffic is dead and York is now represented by a little child.
And of the women, Flora111 is sickly and Delia is dead, and there is a sinister112 entry against Fidelia—“Died, reduced by lying in the bushes.” Why did Fidelia leave her home and lie in the bushes till she was so reduced she died?
But it is just the same tale with the older hands. I would condemn113 slavery on the Worthy Park slave book alone; and Worthy Park had not the bad reputation Bose Hall had, yet Quashie, who opens the book as able in two years, is old and infirm; Mulatto Aleck is infirm. Mulatto George, then able, is now subject to sores and “Bone ach.” Minuith has now become Minute, and from being a carpenter has become a watchman, which means he is good for nothing else. Joan’s Cudjoe, the Head sawyer, has against him “Rheumatism,” and Darby, the Head Driver, formerly114 Able, is now “Ruptur’d.” Guy’s Quashie and Creole Scotland are now both elderly. Pool and Waller the Boilers are sent to the field sometimes, a bitter come-down for them, and are both elderly and infirm. Nero has elephantiasis, Dryden is now cutting grass, M’herson is weakly, M’Clean is asthmatic, Don’t Care is infirm, Juba’s Quashie is dead. Perhaps the new overseer was a harder man, for I noticed that Quaco’s Jumbo, who was originally described as “Weakly and a Runaway,” is now “Able but a Skulker115.”
Philip, who was “Able,” is now “infirm,” and Pope, who only has one hand, is now “Able and Ill-dispos’d,” and no mention is made of an infirmity which certainly must severely116 handicap a slave.
And so it goes on. Villian is “Subject to Fits,” and Solomon is “subject to Bone ach,” a long list which makes us feel for the weary men and women who must turn out into the field at the blowing of the conch shell.
If you have any imagination at all there are many little pathetic histories in a slave book.
There was Dolly on Worthy Park Estate, entered in 1787 as in the overseer’s house. She had a baby, Mulatto Patty, in all probability the daughter of the overseer. If she was he goes away and leaves her a slave on the plantation, for she is entered every year to the end of the record as “healthy, but too young to work.” Work is all that is expected of the white man’s daughter. Poor little Patty! Her mother’s two next children are presumably black, as their colour is not mentioned, which it would have been had they had any white blood in their veins117; and presently poor Dolly is a field-labourer again, fallen from her high estate. For in Jamaica the house-servant ranks high in the social scale. That is why, I think, that the house-servants in Jamaica generally wear a handkerchief over their heads. The white bondservants did so because it was the custom of the time, and the black woman promoted from the field put a kerchief over her head and wore it as a sign of her higher social standing. The custom is dying hard, and it is a pity it should die at all, for the negro woman’s hair is not her strong point and it is better covered.
Then Fogo, also in the overseer’s house, had a boy named Charles Dale, and Charles Dale is the blacksmith upon the estate, but there is no record of little Charles being freed. In truth the father never counted. In a record of forty births on Worthy Park never once is he mentioned. The births are put down on one side of the page as “Increase of the Negroes,” and the baby is only mentioned because he is an asset, as he takes turn with the notice that so many negroes have been bought. On the other side of the page is invariably “Increase of Stock,” kept on exactly the same lines.
In the Rose Hall slave books, thirty years later in date, the births are put casually118 among the daily occurrences, just as the runaways119 are mentioned, or the fact that a certain runaway “C?sar” or “Arabella” is “brought home.” And, perhaps, in the whole pitiful list in all the books, the only entry that looks well is that Betty Madge on Worthy Park has many young children and does not work.
The last man who makes entries in this book is rather fond of a gentle reproach. I don’t like him, and I don’t think the negroes could have liked him either, though I only judge by the handwriting and his brief remarks.
“Pheba Girl,” for instance, is “Able but a sad skulker,” and Lady is a “sad runaway.” Psyche has become “Sickie” and is sickly, and Belinda, who two years ago was a child, is now in the field. Poor little girl! Her life of labour has begun. It gave me great satisfaction to find that Congo Betty, who in the beginning was entered as “Able but a Runaway,” in 1789 ran away for good, apparently, for when the book closed she had not returned, having been absent for over two years. I hope she had not died, but was happy and comfortable in the hills. Perhaps she joined the Maroons120, but I fear me not even her own people were likely to be kind to an elderly woman.
Others ran away, but they came back, poor things. C?sar and Lady and Villian and Mary and October ran away all at one time. No mention is ever made of their return, but they did come back, for later they are served with clothing, and are mentioned in the lists of negroes on the estate. Man is a gregarious121 animal, and, I suppose, these poor things, skulking122 in the woods and mountains, missed their fellows, and so they dared the stocks and the lock-up and the stripes, which were sure to be their portion when they did come back. Lady came back once, for in June 1788 she had a baby girl. In January 1791 she is among the invalids123 and superannuated124. But life among the sick evidently did not suit her—it probably was no bed of roses—for in the following September she left her three-years-old Diana and ran away, and when the book closed three months later she was still away.
Though, apparently, they superannuated the slaves very young, we may be very sure they did not superannuate them before they were actually obliged, so that we find they were old and useless when they should have been in their prime. A slave had no proper stimulus125 to labour. As a rule, he was assured of enough to eat when he was too old to labour, and practically he had little more at any stage of his career.
The deaths, of course, came in under “Decrease of Negroes,” and they died so often of “Old Age,” poor things, that I wonder what constituted “Old Age” in those days. But sometimes they died of “yaws,” and “a consumption,” and “Pluresy.” Sometimes the children died of “Worm fever,” of “Locked Jaw,” “of Fever and Sore Throat,” “of Cold and Sore Throat,” and Little Prince was drowned. One of the men named Dick has my sincerest sympathy. He is bought from Brailsford as “Able,” a couple of years later he is “sickly,” then he has “Bone ach,” and finally on the 1st April 1791 he is entered as “Died of a sudden death,” which is crossed out, and “an Asthma” put instead. He evidently struggled in agonising fashion at intervals126, till at length his heart gave out and he was at peace.
And one of the sad untold127 stories of the book lies behind the entry on the 24th January 1791: “By Hang’d himself in the woods, one of the new negro men bought of Bainford.” He had been bought on the 5th of the same month, and he waited hopelessly, or perhaps hoping, nineteen days, and then he ended it, because for a slave there was no future to which it was worth looking forward. He is entered in the book as remorselessly and as carefully as the steer Hymen who “broke his neck in the Penn.”
Very occasionally does the decrease of the slaves come from the slaves being freed. But once or twice it does. In the year 1787 Mulatto Nelly and Quadroon Kitty and Quadroon Bessy were “manu-mized,” and Mulatto Nelly is sent away. Perhaps the father desired to cut off from his little daughters all slave influence, even that of their mother; for I presume Nelly was their mother. And I wonder were the little girls the daughters of Mr Doubt, for really it does not look as if the other men could afford to free their children.
They do not give us an inventory128 of the furniture of the Great House, but in the overseer’s house most things are set down when the book opens. In the hall, in addition to tables and chairs and a “Beaufett,” they had six silver tablespoons and five silver teaspoons129, five cups and saucers, fifteen wine-glasses, four tumblers, and one wine decanter. In the overseer’s room he had a mahogany bed and a small mahogany bed, and, of course, a feather bed—every room except the hall had one of these luxuries. In August in Jamaica! With the shutters130 close for fear of the slaves!! In the Great House at the Hyde the bedrooms were strangely small and confined when compared with the hall out of which they opened, and I said so once to the doctor. He laughed. He knew his old-time Jamaica.
“The men who built in those times,” said he, “didn’t worry about bedrooms. The dining-hall was the thing! They sat there and drank rum punch till—well, till it didn’t matter whether they slept under the table or were bundled out into the garden!”
But even if they were, shall we say “merry,” at Worthy Park, I think the feather beds must have been aggravating131 things.
The overseer kept in his room, too, the brands with which they marked the slaves—at least such, I suppose, were one silver mark L.P. and one silver stamp L.P. He had a “Sett of Gold Weights and Scales”—I presume for weighing gold, and not made of the precious metal, though where they got the gold to weigh I do not know; and there was a keg of gunpowder132 and thirty-three gun flints, kept there, I suppose, to be under his eye.
The doctor was not of much consequence, if we may judge of the furnishing of the “Doctor’s Chamber133.” It had only a “common bed” and little else except the linen134 chest, in which there were fifteen pairs of fine sheets which strikes me as lavish135 in contrast to the paucity136 of everything else. There were eleven fine pillow-cases, one pair of Osnaburg sheets, two pillow-cases of the same stuff, two fine tablecloths137, to be used on gala days I expect, and seven Osnaburg tablecloths. But there were only three Osnaburg towels, so that I am not surprised at the next entry, “1 Jack138 towel & the other cut for hand towels.” Seven glass cloths might be managed with, I suppose, but why enter “1 do. useless and 2 useless sideboard cloths”?
It is evident that in July 1791 something happened to the ruling power on Worthy Park, for another inventory is taken of the household goods and slaves, and one, Arthur McKenzie, who is not otherwise mentioned, remarks in a thin straggling hand: “N.B.—By the sundries found in and about the works, the written account is very eroneous,” (so he is pleased to spell the word), “in particular speaking Table linen, Glass, Mugs, Cups, Musquito Netts, &c., &c.—Arthur McKenzie.”
Then underneath, “Was obliged to purchase Sheeting” (oh, how careless they must have been with those sheets), “Tablecloaths & Butter, Candles, and send 3/4 of the Soap sent to the Great House for the Works; buy also knives, forks, spoons & send 6 silver spoons from the 18 at the Great House.—1st August ‘91.”
I don’t wonder at his having to purchase knives, for the “Boy’s Pantry” was certainly scantily139 furnished except in the matter of “Wash hand basons” of which there were ten, but four were sent to the Great House. There were “9 Earthen Dishes and 6 shallow plates, 1 Tureen, 8 Pewter dishes and only 3 new knives and 3 new forks, 3 old knives and four useless,” so it rather looks as if once the overseer and a couple of book-keepers had been provided with a knife and fork apiece, the rest of the company, and there must have been some occasionally, had to eat their food with their fingers.
In the “Dry Store” they had all sorts of things. Notice Posts, though considering not half a dozen people on the estate could read, I wonder what they wanted notice posts for. They had “Shovels and Broad Axes, Bullet Moulds, Old Bayonets, Negro Hatts and Iron Crows.” The Herring Store did not contain herrings, at least when the inventory was taken, but had four large empty oil jars, half a barrel of turpentine, alum, roach alum, whatever that may be, and lamp-black. These do not seem to be exactly in their right place in the herring store, but Thomas Kitson examined the inventory and found it correct.
They did use a great many barrels of herrings, for the Betsey, Captain Laurie from London, and the Diana, Captain Thomas Seaward from Cork140, brought out their stores, Osnaburg and baize and “Negro hatts” and check from London, and salt beef and pork and herrings, to say nothing of tallow and candles and soap from Cork. That they should need to bring fish to an island where the sea teems141 with it, and beef and pork to a place where the cattle and swine would run wild and multiply in the woods if they were left to themselves, is a curious commentary on the wasteful142 fashion in which the country was managed.
Again and again it is entered that the herrings served out were bad or “mash’d,” but I am afraid the slaves got them all the same. Possibly they did not consider that bad herrings constituted cruelty to a slave. The pork and beef were for the white men, and a great deal of the unappetising stuff they seem to have eaten. In one year the Diana brought out 15 barrels of beef and 70 barrels of herrings, 4 firkins of butter and 6 kegs of tallow; yet they bought 2 1/2 barrels of beef from Kingston, 2 kegs of tallow and 5 firkins of butter. That they should have bought in the same year a cask and two-thirds of a tierce of codfish, and 4 barrels of American herrings is not so surprising considering the disparity between the negroes and the white men who at most numbered seven. In three months they served out to the slaves 20 barrels of herrings.
There is an echo of the famine that struck the island in 1786 when 15,000 slaves died of starvation, for in 1790 they bought for the use of the slaves 11,800 lbs. of cocos, that is a root not unlike a yam, 1400 lbs. of yams, and 500 plantains, which last, I suppose, were stems of plantains, as 500 plantains would not have gone far. Worthy Park had a “mountain” like many other estates, for often the cattle are entered as having died of “Poverty and Meagreness on the mountain,” or as falling into the sink hole on the “mountain,” and presumably the slaves had grounds there where they grew provisions, but as in famines of a later date, the yams failed, and there were no heads to plant for the new crop which may possibly account for the large number of cocos bought.
Once a year the negroes were served out “cloath-ing.” An ordinary man or woman got 6 yards of Osnaburg, 3 yards of baize, and 1 “hatt,” but the principal men and women got a little more. Lucretia serving at the Great House once got 12 yards of Osnaburg, and most of the tradesmen, the carpenters and the sawyers and blacksmiths, got 10 yards and sometimes 6 yards of check as well.
“The negro women,” says Lesley, writing as late as the middle of the eighteenth century, “go many of them quite naked. They do not know what shame is, and are surprised at an European’s bashfulness, who perhaps turns his head aside at the sight.... Their Masters give them a kind of petticoat, but they do not care to wear it. In the towns they are obliged to do it, and some of them there go neat enough; but these are the favourites of young Squires143 who keep them for a certain use.”
They must have been a forlorn and ragged144 crew of savages the book-keepers saw out into the fields every morning at daybreak. They evidently made them work in the hot and glaring sunshine, holeing for canes145, cutting canes, and carting manure146 on their heads, this last a job much hated, and the whites never remembered, if they ever knew, that no black man or woman works of his own free will in the glare of the tropical sun. On the Gold Coast I have heard the people going out into the fields long before daylight, but I have never seen men or women working hard during the midday hours. This is only common sense, and possibly much of the sickness that decimated the slaves was due to this cause. There is a record of one humanitarian147 who discovered that it would be well to provide nurses for the infants. Every woman had to go back to field work a fortnight after her baby was born. She must needs take the child, and so great was the heat that sometimes the mother when she had time to attend to it found that the little one on her back was dead!
And yet these slave-owners desired children very much and they deplored148 the deaths as so much money gone from their pockets, just as man now-a-days regrets when his calf149 or his foal dies. They grumble12 very much because the slaves do not increase as they think they ought. They gave no thought to morals, and anybody might father a woman’s child. But considering all things I think they grumbled unreasonably150. No wild animals increase rapidly in captivity151, but in five years there were forty children born on Worthy Park, that is nearly 23 per thousand—not so very bad considering that the rate for London in the year 1919 among a free people was 24.8. But this was discounted by the number of deaths in infancy152. Matthew Lewis tells of the ravages153 of tetanus among the newly born on his estate in the beginning of the last century, and neither he nor any one else had an idea of the cause or how it might be prevented.
The midwife, the “Garundee,” told him that till after the ninth day they had no hope of the newborn babies. It was, had she but known it, a sad commentary on her own want of cleanliness.
The children of the white men had perhaps a better chance of being reared than those of the slaves, because the women who lived with them had an easier time. Their children were slaves like the others, but it was the custom not to put them to field work; the boys they made artisans and the girls were trained as house-servants, and Lewis says the other slaves paid them a certain deference154, always honouring the girls with the title of “Miss.”
“My mulatto housemaid,” says he, “is always called ‘Miss Polly’ by her fellow-servant Phillis.”
The last entry in the Worthy Park slave book with George Doubt as Superintendent—I feel as if I knew George Doubt—was on the 28th June 1791. Then apparently something happened, and Arthur M’Kenzie made his moan about the careless way in which the inventory was taken. When the returns for the last quarter 1791 are sent in to the Vestry there is quite a new departure. The “White People” are headed by Pose Price, Esq., and the Rev54. John Venicomb bracketed together as having arrived on the 1st December, and we immediately imagine the son of the proprietor155 accompanied by his bear leader. But there is a still greater departure from the usual run of things on the 23rd of the same month when Edward Phelps and Sussannah Phelps are set down. So that the very last entry of white people in the book mentions a woman!
Was it all worth while? Even after I have read the whole very carefully. I am not in a position to judge. Only it seems to me the expenses were very great. Not only was there the upkeep of these people, but they were always buying new negroes and in addition to that quite a considerable sum was paid out to negroes hired—slave gangs—to do the jobs for which those on the estate had neither strength nor time.
Occasionally we get the returns. In January 1790 James Fraser, one of the six overseers, certifies156 that the crop returns are 248 hogsheads, that is 124 tons of sugar, and 85 puncheons of rum. Set that against the 510 tons of sugar and 301 puncheons of rum which Mr Fred Clarke gives me as the returns from the same estate in the year of our Lord 1920. Of course to compare exactly, I should have the wages returns of the present day, the cost of improved machinery157 and various other things, but looking at it from the point of view of an outsider it certainly looks as if it were not worth it.
Very, very slowly we move towards perfection, but we do move. Perhaps one hundred and thirty years hence, some writer will read of 1921 with as much wonder as I read in this old slave book of a day that is done.
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1
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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decency
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| n.体面，得体，合宜，正派，庄重 | |
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horrified
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| a.(表现出)恐惧的 | |
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phoenix
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| n.凤凰，长生(不死)鸟；引申为重生 | |
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gist
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| n.要旨；梗概 | |
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hip
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| n.臀部，髋；屋脊 | |
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hips
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| abbr.high impact polystyrene 高冲击强度聚苯乙烯，耐冲性聚苯乙烯n.臀部( hip的名词复数 )；[建筑学]屋脊；臀围（尺寸）；臀部…的 | |
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savanna
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| n.大草原 | |
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mar
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| vt.破坏，毁坏，弄糟 | |
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schooners
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| n.（有两个以上桅杆的）纵帆船( schooner的名词复数 ) | |
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grumbled
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| 抱怨( grumble的过去式和过去分词 )； 发牢骚； 咕哝； 发哼声 | |
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grumble
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| vi.抱怨；咕哝；n.抱怨，牢骚；咕哝，隆隆声 | |
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growled
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| v.（动物）发狺狺声， （雷）作隆隆声( growl的过去式和过去分词 )；低声咆哮着说 | |
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gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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coconut
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| n.椰子 | |
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cramped
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| a.狭窄的 | |
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bask
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| vt.取暖，晒太阳，沐浴于 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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scramble
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| v.爬行，攀爬，杂乱蔓延，碎片，片段，废料 | |
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ashore
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| adv.在(向)岸上，上岸 | |
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retrieve
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| vt.重新得到，收回；挽回，补救；检索 | |
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retirement
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| n.退休，退职 | |
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plantation
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| n.种植园，大农场 | |
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plantations
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| n.种植园，大农场( plantation的名词复数 ) | |
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stark
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| adj.荒凉的；严酷的；完全的；adv.完全地 | |
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shackles
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| 手铐( shackle的名词复数 )； 脚镣； 束缚； 羁绊 | |
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flickered
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| （通常指灯光）闪烁，摇曳( flicker的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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ferociousness
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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docile
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| adj.驯服的，易控制的，容易教的 | |
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gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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robust
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| adj.强壮的，强健的，粗野的，需要体力的，浓的 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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emancipation
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| n.（从束缚、支配下）解放 | |
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perquisites
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| n.（工资以外的）财务补贴( perquisite的名词复数 )；额外收入；（随职位而得到的）好处；利益 | |
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rebellious
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| adj.造反的，反抗的，难控制的 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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implement
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| n.(pl.)工具，器具；vt.实行，实施，执行 | |
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heed
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| v.注意，留意；n.注意，留心 | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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amity
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| n.友好关系 | |
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intentionally
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| ad.故意地，有意地 | |
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chattels
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| n.动产，奴隶( chattel的名词复数 ) | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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lame
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| adj.跛的，(辩解、论据等)无说服力的 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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rev
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| v.发动机旋转，加快速度 | |
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momentary
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| adj.片刻的，瞬息的；短暂的 | |
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apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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frightful
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| adj.可怕的；讨厌的 | |
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stoutest
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| 粗壮的( stout的最高级 )； 结实的； 坚固的； 坚定的 | |
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bosoms
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| 胸部( bosom的名词复数 )； 胸怀； 女衣胸部（或胸襟）； 和爱护自己的人在一起的情形 | |
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61
flinching
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| v.（因危险和痛苦）退缩，畏惧( flinch的现在分词 ) | |
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exultation
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| n.狂喜，得意 | |
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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tattooing
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| n.刺字，文身v.刺青，文身( tattoo的现在分词 )；连续有节奏地敲击；作连续有节奏的敲击 | |
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tattooed
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| v.刺青，文身( tattoo的过去式和过去分词 )；连续有节奏地敲击；作连续有节奏的敲击 | |
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66
pampered
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| adj.饮食过量的，饮食奢侈的v.纵容，宠，娇养( pamper的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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gnawed
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| 咬( gnaw的过去式和过去分词 )； （长时间） 折磨某人； （使）苦恼； （长时间）危害某事物 | |
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69
sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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interfering
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| adj. 妨碍的 动词interfere的现在分词 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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rumour
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| n.谣言，谣传，传闻 | |
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73
specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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74
jutting
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| v.（使）突出( jut的现在分词 )；伸出；（从…）突出；高出 | |
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75
implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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76
undue
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| adj.过分的；不适当的；未到期的 | |
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77
espionage
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| n.间谍行为，谍报活动 | |
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78
progeny
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| n.后代，子孙；结果 | |
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79
housekeepers
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| n.（女）管家( housekeeper的名词复数 ) | |
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80
dweller
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| n.居住者，住客 | |
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81
grove
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| n.林子，小树林，园林 | |
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82
fragrant
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| adj.芬香的，馥郁的，愉快的 | |
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83
picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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84
infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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85
delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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86
sanitation
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| n.公共卫生，环境卫生，卫生设备 | |
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87
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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88
stony
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| adj.石头的，多石头的，冷酷的，无情的 | |
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89
unwillingly
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| adv.不情愿地 | |
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90
contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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91
enumerated
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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92
superintendent
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| n.监督人，主管，总监；(英国)警务长 | |
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93
makers
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| n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式） | |
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94
maker
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| n.制造者，制造商 | |
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95
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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96
mules
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| 骡( mule的名词复数 )； 拖鞋； 顽固的人； 越境运毒者 | |
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97
mule
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| n.骡子，杂种，执拗的人 | |
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98
lodging
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| n.寄宿，住所；(大学生的)校外宿舍 | |
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99
entrusted
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| v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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100
fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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101
luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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102
underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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103
boilers
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| 锅炉，烧水器，水壶( boiler的名词复数 ) | |
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104
boiler
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| n.锅炉；煮器(壶，锅等) | |
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105
steer
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| vt.驾驶，为…操舵；引导；vi.驾驶 | |
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106
runaway
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| n.逃走的人，逃亡，亡命者；adj.逃亡的，逃走的 | |
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107
confirmation
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| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
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108
psyche
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| n.精神；灵魂 | |
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109
invalid
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| n.病人，伤残人；adj.有病的，伤残的；无效的 | |
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110
expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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111
flora
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| n.(某一地区的)植物群 | |
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112
sinister
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| adj.不吉利的，凶恶的，左边的 | |
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113
condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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114
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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115
skulker
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| n.偷偷隐躲起来的人，偷懒的人 | |
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116
severely
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| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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117
veins
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| n.纹理；矿脉( vein的名词复数 )；静脉；叶脉；纹理 | |
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118
casually
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| adv.漠不关心地，无动于衷地，不负责任地 | |
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119
runaways
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| （轻而易举的）胜利( runaway的名词复数 ) | |
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120
maroons
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| n.逃亡黑奴（maroon的复数形式）vt.把…放逐到孤岛（maroon的第三人称单数形式） | |
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121
gregarious
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| adj.群居的，喜好群居的 | |
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122
skulking
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| v.潜伏，偷偷摸摸地走动，鬼鬼祟祟地活动( skulk的现在分词 ) | |
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123
invalids
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| 病人，残疾者( invalid的名词复数 ) | |
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124
superannuated
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| adj.老朽的，退休的；v.因落后于时代而废除，勒令退学 | |
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125
stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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126
intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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127
untold
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| adj.数不清的，无数的 | |
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128
inventory
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| n.详细目录，存货清单 | |
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129
teaspoons
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| n.茶匙( teaspoon的名词复数 )；一茶匙的量 | |
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130
shutters
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| 百叶窗( shutter的名词复数 )； （照相机的）快门 | |
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131
aggravating
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| adj.恼人的，讨厌的 | |
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132
gunpowder
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| n.火药 | |
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133
chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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134
linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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135
lavish
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| adj.无节制的；浪费的；vt.慷慨地给予，挥霍 | |
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136
paucity
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| n.小量，缺乏 | |
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137
tablecloths
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| n.桌布，台布( tablecloth的名词复数 ) | |
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138
jack
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| n.插座，千斤顶，男人；v.抬起，提醒，扛举；n.（Jake）杰克 | |
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139
scantily
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| adv.缺乏地；不充足地；吝啬地；狭窄地 | |
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140
cork
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| n.软木，软木塞 | |
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141
teems
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| v.充满( teem的第三人称单数 )；到处都是；（指水、雨等）暴降；倾注 | |
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142
wasteful
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| adj.（造成）浪费的，挥霍的 | |
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143
squires
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| n.地主，乡绅( squire的名词复数 ) | |
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144
ragged
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| adj.衣衫褴褛的，粗糙的，刺耳的 | |
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145
canes
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| n.（某些植物，如竹或甘蔗的）茎( cane的名词复数 )；（用于制作家具等的）竹竿；竹杖 | |
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146
manure
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| n.粪，肥，肥粒；vt.施肥 | |
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147
humanitarian
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| n.人道主义者，博爱者，基督凡人论者 | |
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148
deplored
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| v.悲叹，痛惜，强烈反对( deplore的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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149
calf
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| n.小牛，犊，幼仔，小牛皮 | |
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150
unreasonably
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| adv. 不合理地 | |
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151
captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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152
infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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153
ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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154
deference
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| n.尊重，顺从；敬意 | |
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155
proprietor
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| n.所有人；业主；经营者 | |
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156
certifies
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| （尤指书面）证明( certify的第三人称单数 )； 发证书给…； 证明（某人）患有精神病； 颁发（或授予）专业合格证书 | |
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157
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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