The natural pastures invited the inhabitants to the pastoral industry. The vast littoral1 placed the country in contact with the rest of the world by means of fluvial and maritime2 navigation. Its salubrious and temperate3 climate rendered life more pleasant and work more reproductive. It was indeed a territory prepared for live-stock breeding, constituted for commercial prosperity, and predestined by acclimatization to be peopled by all the races of the earth. Thus we see that the profitable occupation of its soil commences to be realized by means of live stock brought overland from Peru and from Brazil; that the commercial currents of the interior converge4 little by little towards the River Plate; that abundance and well-being5 are spread by this means; and that the first external act of the colonists7 after the foundation of Buenos Aires in 1580 is the exportation of a shipload of the fruits of their own work (hides and sugar), which awakens8 immigration and the commerce of importation.
This reference to the “commerce of importation” is an indication of the limitations under which the colonists laboured under Spanish rule. They might import from Spain as much as they could, but a very jealous guard was put on their exports lest these might compete with the industries of the Mother Country.
Seventy-two horses and mares were landed by Pedro de Mendoza when he founded the first settlement of Santa Maria de los Buenos Aires in 1535. Many of his followers9 were killed by the native Indians, but when Juan de Garay coming[250] down through Paraguay laid the real foundations of the present capital of the Argentine Republic, he and those with him were surprised to find wild horses grazing on the Pampa. These were the descendants of those brought by Mendoza and the ancestors of the present equine stock of the River Plate countries, a stock which has, however, in common with all the live stock of these countries, been improved out of all recognition in the course of the last half-century by imported European strains. Still the wild descendants of Mendoza’s animals, acclimatized through countless10 generations and become hardy11 in their free life, were no bad raw material to improve upon.
The first appearance of cattle on the River Plate Pampa is, as has already been mentioned, credited to seven cows and a bull said to have been brought from Brazil, through Paraguay, by two Portuguese12, the brothers Cipriano and Vicente Goes, early in the last half of the sixteenth century, but other cattle were introduced in far larger quantities about the same time or a little later under the conditions of the appointment of Juan de Galazary Espinoza as Treasurer13 of the River Plate. To Nunflo de Chaves is credited the honour of the introduction of the first goats and sheep in 1550.
Evidently large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep afterwards strayed in a semi-wild condition down south from Peru and Brazil, attracted by the wealth of pasturage.
The early history of the export trade of the River Plate colonists in hides, tallow, wool and jerked beef, is one of smuggling14 and bribery15 of officials. Nevertheless, even under such difficult circumstances and costly16 methods many settlers contrived17, by also trading in European merchandise, to amass18 great wealth, the fortunes of many of them, says Mr. Gibson, amounting to over ￡60,000 sterling19.
Meanwhile the increase of cattle was astounding20 if one did not consider the difficulties in the way of its utilization21. In the middle of the seventeenth century anyone could take all[251] he wanted from the wild herds22 up to 10,000 or 12,000 head, or more by obtaining licence to do so from the Governor.
The rights of free export of animal produce from Buenos Aires to Spain and open trade with the interior were first granted to the River Plate Colonies in 1778, under the Vice-Regal rule. But it was the Independence of the Colonies in 1810 which freed them from all commercial trammels and was the real commencement of their present agricultural and pastoral prosperity. Since then no events (except, of course, the advent24 of the railway in 1857) in the annals of the export commerce of the River Plate have been of greater importance than the founding of the Argentine Rural Society in 1866, and the discovery by Tellier of the preservation25 of meat at freezing point submitted to the Paris Academy of Science in 1872, and of Ferdinand Carré’s improvements for the transport of chilled meat.
The first freezing establishment in the River Plate was that erected27 by Se?or Eugenio Terrasson at San Nicolás, in the Province of Buenos Aires, in 1883, and in the following year the legislature exempted28 frozen and chilled meat from the payment of export duty.
Over 99% of the whole exports of frozen and chilled meat from Argentina comes direct to the United Kingdom,[42] and we get quite one-half of the whole of our overseas meat and grain supplies from the two River Plate Republics.
The past half-century has seen amazing changes on the vast pasture lands of Argentina and Uruguay. The first of these was the invasion of what had formerly29 been the exclusive domains30 of cattle and sheep by agriculture. Little by little, wheat, especially, ousted32 the flocks and herds from an ever-increasing radius33 from the port of Buenos Aires. Land values increased as agriculture flourished till the time came when stock-breeders found themselves outbidden by wheat-growers[252] or, rather, landowners found it more profitable to grow wheat or maize34 on lands which were economically accessible to transport. As the railways grew so did this almost exclusively cereal area.
This tendency continued until what may almost be termed the “discovery” in the River Plate Territories of the qualities of Alfalfa (Lucerne).
The double value of this crop as fodder35 and for improving the land by collecting and depositing atmospheric36 nitrogen, caused it to be planted by every intelligent estanciero, and brought back much of the cattle to properties which had seemed for ever given over to wheat-growing. Other contemporary reasons for the reappearance of cattle on the home lands were the increased demand for good slaughter37 animals initiated38 by the newly established cold-storage and export business and dawning appreciation39 of the fact that one cannot for ever go on growing immediately successive crops of wheat on the same land.
Thus were laid some foundations of scientific farming on more civilized40 lines, in which stock-raising and agriculture combine for the profit of the farmer. The cattle industry and horse-breeding also, gained fresh impetus41 from the abundance of alfalfa now grown everywhere on a large scale and on brackish42 land formerly considered valueless.
Sheep only, with their nomadic43 nature which demands large areas on which to roam, their close-cropping manner of grazing and their faculty44 for quickly ruining alfalfa fields on which they may be allowed to graze, are still only found in comparatively small numbers on the high-priced lands of the East-Central parts of Argentina and the South of Uruguay, being chiefly relegated45 to outlying districts in which land is still of comparatively small value and particularly, in Argentina, to those parts of Patagonia the inclement46 climate of which suits them as it does little else.
Nevertheless, the finest breeds of sheep are chiefly to be[253] found on the “model” estancias, where as good live stock as any in the world is bred and intensive farming has begun to be appreciated for its own sake and on account of the normally ever-increasing value of land in all the most fertile and accessible rural districts of the River Plate Republics.
Durhams and Lincolns are the favourite breeds of cattle and sheep, though many fine strains of Herefords, Polled Angus, Merinos, Romney Marsh47 and Shropshires abound48. No price is too high for the Argentine estanciero to pay for imported animals for the still greater perfection of his stock, and the great Show held under the auspices49 of the Rural Society at Palermo, a park-like suburb of the city of Buenos Aires, comes as a revelation to each expert breeder who travels, as many do every year, from Europe to the River Plate to see it. Money and care can do no better anywhere in the production of animals of the very highest quality. It may be noted50 that the prizes (always awarded by impartial51 foreign, usually British, judges) are more frequently gained by native Argentine breeders.
River Plate live stock suffers very little indeed from any of the diseases which are the breeder’s dread52 in most other countries; with the exception of sheep and pigs, the former being greatly subject to “fluke” and the latter to fever. Horse-breeding is carried on very successfully. The carriage horses exported by Se?or Martinez de Hoz and others are now well known in Europe and the race-courses of Argentina and Uruguay are the constant scenes of the display of very fine horse-flesh indeed. That Argentine-bred race-horses are more successful in South America than freshly imported ones is no doubt due to climatic causes. Argentine race-horses are here specified54 because horse-breeding has been brought to a higher pitch of perfection in Argentina than has yet been attained55 in Uruguay.
Poultry56 and pig farming may yet be said to be in their infancy57 in both Republics, simply because both countries are[254] still quite fully53 occupied with the two great established industries of producing grain and meat for export.
Given adequate population (how often must one ring the changes on this phrase!) very many rich sources of prosperity would quickly be disclosed to now almost unsuspecting European eyes. Poultry and pigs are two of the richest, and the most obvious for mention, in this chapter, of such almost latent sources.
The cold-storage establishment at Zárate, in the Province of Buenos Aires, some years ago erected a scientifically equipped plant for the curing of hams and bacon. But the difficulty is yet to obtain sufficient pigs of first quality to make the curing industry a success. Throughout the temperate zone of South America the climatic conditions are quite favourable58 to pig-raising; and food in the shape of maize and alfalfa is abundant at relatively59 small cost. When pigs and poultry receive the care which is now acknowledged to be necessary to, and given for, the best results from cattle, horses and sheep, River Plate poultry and pig produce will loom60 large on the markets of the world, besides supplying a daily increasing local demand.
What has been called the Alfalfa region because of the astounding yield of that forage61 given by its brackish, saltpetre-impregnated waters and sandy soil, lies to the West of the Province of Buenos Aires. Almost the whole of the two Republics are now, however, largely planted with alfalfa, the spread of which has grown rapidly since the several valuable qualities of that crop have come to be understood.
In many districts wheat has been sown on wheat year after year ever since the booming times of South American cereal export began. So that in many parts of such districts the soil can do no more, and in consequence the wheat yield has become unsatisfactory.
When these districts cease entirely62 to be able to yield any wheat at all, someone will lay down alfalfa as an alternate[255] crop and will find the cost of having done so, and of reploughing, say, three years afterwards, insignificant63 compared with the value of the quantity and quality of wheat the same land will yield after that process of alternation; not to mention the value of the three years’ three or quite likely four, annual crops of alfalfa taken off it during that period.
This form of intensive farming will probably be the first to become obligatory64, for economic reasons, on the generality of owners of land situated65 in the chief cereal areas.
Till to-day, landowners in these large favoured tracts66 have grown wealthy with little trouble and no thought as far as purely67 agricultural enterprise, as apart from stock-breeding, is concerned.
All this is, however, a digression from our present consideration of stock-raising, except as regards the increasingly intimate connection between stock-raising and agriculture in the most thickly populated districts; for the Argentine Rural Statistics (more availably complete than those of Uruguay) show that the much greater proportion of cattle is in the Provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, Córdoba and Entre Rios which are four of the chief cereal areas. And though there are more cattle in the province of Corrientes than in either of the three last-named Provinces, the vast herds of one of the largest meat-extract companies account for much of this. So that it may be taken that the Provinces of Buenos Aires (represented by a long way by the highest figures), Santa Fé, Córdoba and Entre Rios, with the Territory of the Pampa Central in respect of cereals, are the regions which, together, are the richest in Live Stock and cereals in Argentina.[43]
[256]
The following interesting table of the difference in numbers of cattle, sheep, and horses in 1895 and 1908 is taken from the Argentine National Census68 taken in the latter year, the latest census of the kind taken throughout the Republic.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 1895 AND 1908
More (+), less (-) in 1908
PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES SPECIES
CATTLE SHEEP HORSES
Federal Capital and the Island of M. García - 11,538 - 7,072 + 7,367
Buenos Aires + 2,605,339 - 18,025,479 + 844,568
Santa Fé + 1,098,439 - 1,019,371 + 509,609
Corrientes + 1,382,639 + 1,733,462 + 187,039
Córdoba + 754,554 - 602,552 + 579,080
San Luis - 98,925 + 314,439 + 67,290
Tucumán - 23,058 + 25,134 + 57,151
Entre Rios + 360,829 + 795,284 + 132,510
Salta + 9,398 + 63,670 + 26,115
Catamarca - 7,357 + 28,899 + 19,050
Jujuy - 16,337 - 62,830 + 8,673
Mendoza + 61,252 + 120,186 + 51,268
La Rioja + 170,603 + 60,025 + 22,986
Santiago del Estero + 37,350 + 316,978 + 96,668
San Juan + 12,629 + 37,237 + 3,458
Central Pampa + 65,517 - 486,100 + 52,534
Rio Negro + 197,409 + 3,715,067 + 142,875
Neuquen + 20,022 + 315,528 + 47,680
Chubut + 305,051 + 2,076,322 + 152,925
Santa Cruz + 14,778 + 2,018,302 + 28,524
Fireland + 11,055 + 1,335,186 + 9,910
Chaco + 181,327 + 2,318 + 13,163
Misiones + 24,102 + 3,382 + 10,895
Formosa + 192,300 + 20,044 + 13,058
The Andes + 905 + 54,133 + 121
Republic at large + 7,415,099 - 7,167,808 + 3,084,517
The result of the comparison is to show that in the provinces and territories of the Republic, the number of cattle has increased by 7,415,099 head, and that of horses by 3,084,517 head, whereas sheep have fallen off by 7,167,808.
The following are the figures for Cattle and Sheep respectively as calculated by Se?or Emilio Lahitte, Director of the Division of Rural Economy and Statistics in the[257] Argentine National Ministry69 of Agriculture, existing in each Province and Territory of that Republic on the 31st December, 1911.
CATTLE SHEEP
Federal Capital 14,338 1,222
Province of Buenos Aires 7,045,523 28,934,475
” Santa Fé 4,055,624 1,612,799
” Córdoba 2,251,744 2,753,773
” Entre Rios 2,260,078 6,721,976
” Corrientes 5,030,396 5,937,432
” San Luis 861,831 1,565,326
” Santiago del Estero 1,121,374 1,344,024
” Mendoza 395,327 745,701
” San Juan 174,835 191,752
” La Rioja 600,582 234,587
” Catamarca 382,108 230,201
” Tucumán 653,458 234,591
” Salta 892,248 630,681
” Jujuy 172,387 1,128,321
National Territory of Pampa Central 399,460 5,751,856
” ” Misiones 154,328 24,761
” ” Formosa 359,139 46,397
” ” Chaco 562,412 25,052
” ” Los Andes 2,057 108,523
” ” Rio Negro 379,312 8,476,993
” ” Neuquen 295,770 1,099,161
” ” Chubut 651,511 5,091,132
” ” Santa Cruz 55,442 4,946,677
” ” Tierra del Fuego 14,726 2,564,073
” ” Isla Martín García 218 —
Totals 28,786,168 80,401,486
The 1908 Census showed that more than one-fourth of the whole cattle of the Republic were Durhams, rather less than one-sixth Herefords and the remainder made up of very much smaller quantities of Polled Angus, Dutch, Red Polled, Jerseys70, Flemish and Swiss, their numerical importance being according to the order in which they are here stated, from a total of 125,829 Polled Angus to 3401 Swiss.
As has been said, Lincolns are still in most favour among sheep, followed by Romney Marsh and other long-wool breeds, Shropshire, Hampshire and Oxford71 Downs, Southdowns and Rambouillets and Merinos.
[258]
The reason for the great preference shown for Durhams is their reputation for combined meat-carrying and milking qualities, in which latter Herefords are relatively deficient72. The dairy industries are already developing on an important scale.
There are practically no parts of the River Plate Territories except their forests, mountains and certain as yet unirrigated tracts, such as the Valley of the Rio Negro, which are not naturally adapted to cattle or sheep raising, or both, and at present Live Stock is to be found in almost exclusive occupation of close on 96,000,000 hectares out of the calculated total of 300 million hectares of cultivable land in the Argentine Republic. These figures are taken from the 1908 Argentine Census, above referred to.
The parallel figures for Uruguay are not available in such exact form of statement, but it may be taken that there are very few parts of that country in which cattle or sheep or both are not found.
Diseases of live stock are, as has been said, very conspicuous73 by their relative total absence in both Republics, and farmers in both Argentina and Uruguay are very sore about the sustained attitude of the British Government which refuses to permit the entrance of River Plate live stock on the hoof74 into British ports. The farmers are convinced that this refusal is due to the influence of British breeders who, while thus preventing what would otherwise be a serious menace to their own industry, yet benefit by the South American acceptance of very high priced animals imported from Great Britain for stud purposes. The weak point of this argument is, of course, that such importation of prize animals is in no way authoritatively75 enforced on the Argentine or Uruguayan, his obligation to purchase such animals arising only from his necessity to do so in his own best interests. The danger on his side arises from the possibility of latent tuberculosis77 and other disease, but this he now guards very effectually against, often at much[259] pecuniary78 loss to himself, by severe tests carried out by competent veterinary surgeons on all imported animals and the unhesitating sacrifice of any found to be infected.
The present writer is inclined to venture the opinion that the British Government might rely with safety on the certificates of Argentine and Uruguayan Government experts of the immunity79 of all cattle and sheep leaving either Republic on the hoof. It does, in effect, accept such certificates in regard to the condition of frozen or chilled carcases; and, morality apart, it may safely be taken that every Argentine and Uruguayan interested is much too fully aware of the importance to himself individually of the countries’ export trade to risk the slightest laxity in connection with the sure ascertainment80 of perfect immunity from disease or contagion81 of all animals shipped from his Ports.
As this matter now stands, the British authorities refuse to permit the importation of live cattle or sheep until such time as the Argentine or Uruguayan Governments can give assurance of the total absence of disease in every part of their Republics.
It can easily be understood that this practically postpones82 such permission to the Millennium83, since it is most highly improbable that the whole of such vast areas of pasturage and the millions of head of live stock in Argentina and Uruguay should ever be without one beast affected84 in more or less degree by any contagious85 disease. One day, probably (before the Millennium), other counsels will prevail with the British Government and the whole people of Great Britain, as well as Argentine and Uruguayan estancieros benefit by the removal of the present comprehensive prohibition86.
For his stock, the Argentine and Uruguayan farmer does not fear disease, that he and his Governments can and do very efficiently87 guard against, but he does fear drought which he yet has only inadequate88 means to combat.
The streams of the huge Pampean flat are few and far between, and are apt to dry up in exceptionally dry seasons.[260] Almost everywhere now the sky-line is dotted with corrugated-iron windmills which draw water from surface or artesian wells. But vast and costly irrigation (and drainage) works are needed before the whole available pasturage of the two Republics can defy the recurrence89 of times of drought which sometimes much more than decimate the live stock of enormous districts. Uruguay is, however, infinitely90 better provided with running rivers and streams than Argentina.
It was a long time before the native Argentine small farmer could be got to see the real economy of outlay91 on artesian wells and still in the more illiterate92 outlying Provinces are to be found men as yet unconvinced in that regard.
One of the agricultural instructors93 which the Argentine Government keeps travelling all over the country to give advice and instruction to farmers told the present writer not so very long ago that he had tried very hard but without success to persuade a man in a remote corner of Argentina, whose stock was daily dying of drought, to sink at least one artesian well on his property, and even offered to erect26 a windmill for him free of all cost except that of the actual mill.
At last, one evening, the farmer consented to this proposal, but the following morning brought a cloudy sky. Pointing dramatically to this he said, “Why should I sink wells? See! Rain is coming.” After that, my friend, the expert, gave the matter up in disgust. It was of no use telling the farmer that drought might come again. Sufficient for the day had been the evil thereof; and, as for future troubles, why meet them half-way?
Uruguay is relatively very rich in sheep, which thrive well on her undulating lands, and exports wool to the annual value of well over ￡4,000,000.
The value of Argentine annual wool exports now totals over ￡9,000,000.
The real commencement of the pastoral as well as the agricultural industries of the River Plate in systematized[261] form was the introduction of fences by a landowner named Olivera, in 1838. As may be conjectured94, the erection of boundaries where none had ever been before, on properties the titles to and limits of which were of the vaguest description, mostly partook of the nature of an arbitrary proceeding95. So evidently thought Manuel Rozas, the tyrant96; who summarily prevented Olivera from continuing the fencing the latter had begun on his estancia “Los Remedios,” although Olivera’s new boundaries were but ditches crowned with quick-set hedges of “A?apinday” (Acacias affinis).
After the death of Rozas, however, in 1844, an English estanciero, Richard Newton, first employed iron wire for some of the enclosures of his property; and, later, another landowner, named Halbach, completely enclosed the whole of his estancia.
The founder97 of the Argentine Rural Society, Dr. Eduardo Olivera, says in one of his agricultural essays:—
To these three men (Olivera, Newton and Halbach) the Republic owes the transformation98 of its pastoral and agricultural industries.
It was only after the enclosing of lands that refining of stock became possible. Previously99, a stock-owner was always subject to invasion by stray animals (often in large numbers) belonging to his neighbours.
Thus, as we have seen, the first step, the introduction of wire fencing, towards the present development of the Live Stock industry of the River Plate was initiated by an Englishman, and it was another Englishman, Mr. John Miller100, who, in 1848, imported from England, for a Mr. White, the owner of the estancia “La Campana,” Tarquin, the first shorthorn bull ever seen on the River Plate.
Therefore the River Plate Territories really owe their pastoral development as well as their railways to the Anglo-Saxon race.
Some ten years later it became the fashion to import[262] stallions of the carriage and riding kinds; it not being foreseen that the heavier breeds would also prove useful.
Then came the turn of sheep-breeding; first from imported Merinos. Later, Rambouillets were introduced and a little later again the Lincoln began to assert its right to the predominance it has since attained.
In 1866 the Argentine Rural Society was founded by a few leading estancieros. Still a private society, its admirable and constantly progressive efforts, usually crowned with success, have given it a status which is practically official.
The Society has a Registration101 Office which keeps authoritative76 Herd23 and Flock Books in which are entered the pedigrees of all the pure-breed cattle, sheep and horses in the country whose owners have applied102 for such registration; except thoroughbred horses and merino sheep, the breeders of which last have not yet arrived at the definition of the purity of that class of sheep. The walls of this Office are lined with the Herd and Flock Books of the Breeding Societies of Great Britain and her Colonies, and, as Mr. Herbert Gibson, himself a prominent member of the Society, tells us, “there is not in the whole world an analogous103 office which covers so diverse and numerous a registration.”
The latest (1908) official Argentine live stock Census gives the following tables of, respectively, the importation of pedigree bulls and cows and pedigree rams104 and ewes, from 1880 to 1907.
PEDIGREE BULLS AND COWS
No. of
Head. Official
values.
$ gold.
From the United Kingdom 14,624 3,770,031
” France 583 120,724
” Belgium 325 75,235
” the United States 169 41,200
” Germany 153 27,770
” Chile 113 27,034
” Italy 62 9,553
” Holland 50 5,300
” Spain 40 5,700
” Other countries 40 13,870
16,156 4,492,372
[263]
PEDIGREE RAMS AND EWES
No. of
Head. Official
values.
$ gold.
From the United Kingdom 65,724 3,141,971
” Germany 3,327 207,833
” France 1,184 60,154
” the United States 502 33,250
” British Possessions 223 15,500
” Belgium 209 19,829
” Australia 125 5,100
” Spain 128 8,165
” Italy 56 540
” Holland 10 30
71,488 3,492,372
Total value of cattle and sheep imported for breeding purposes during the above indicated period $7,588,780 gold—￡1,517,756. These animals have proved worth vastly more than the prices paid for them.
Prior to this, in 1858, the first Rural Show was organized at Palermo. It was not a success. As Dr. Zeballos has written, “It was held in the midst of public indifference105 and passed utterly106 unnoticed by the press.” However, it seems to have only been a sort of fair at which all kinds of other wares107 jostled some rural produce. In face of this fiasco it is not surprising that no other Rural Show was held until thirteen years later; when a really Rural Show was held in the City of Córdoba. This appears to have had as much success as was to be expected after taking difficulties of transport into consideration.
The real commencement, however, of the series of great annual shows now held at Palermo was made by the Rural Society in 1875.
The chief live stock exhibits at these shows consists of—
[264]
Horses. “Criollos” (native breed).
Saddle and race horses.
Light draught108.
Heavy draught (now in the majority).
Cattle. Shorthorn (in a very large majority).
Hereford.
Polled Angus.
Dairy breeds.
Sheep. Merino.
Lincoln-Merino crossbreds.
Lincoln.
Romney Marsh.
Shropshire Down.
Oxford Down.
Hampshire Down.
Leicester.
The majority of the sheep exhibits are Lincolns and Merinos.
Fine Pigs and Poultry of all kinds are also to be seen at these shows, but they are chiefly contributed by the wealthier estancieros. As has been indicated, the day of pig and poultry farming on a large practical scale has not yet dawned on the River Plate.
Mr. Herbert Gibson shows us, in his valuable Monograph109 attached to the Argentine National Agricultural and Live Stock Census of 1908, that the coming of Cold Storage establishments, as well as the increase of the export trade for animals on the hoof, was very largely instrumental in securing the predominance of the Lincoln breed, most frequently crossed with merino.
Merino for wool and Lincoln for mutton; and the cross which preserves the best qualities of both is in effect the guiding rule of the River Plate sheep-breeder of to-day.[265] However, with the coming of alfalfa came also the various black-faced or Down breeds which mature quickly into fine meat carcases.
It may be said that barbed wire, iron water-drawing windmills and cold storage establishments are the chief inanimate supports of the River Plate Live Stock industries. Another should be trees; the prime necessity of which to afford shade for animals which know no other roof but the heavens, from which a very hot sun shines on the Pampa in summer time, is not yet as generally appreciated as it should be. Still the planting of trees on pasture lands began some years ago, and only could be wished to spread more quickly and universally than it has yet done.
One is all too apt in dealing110 with the River Plate Republics to confine one’s ideas regarding them to industries of a magnitude commensurate with the huge extent of their Territories; but with the coming of the real colonist6, when he does come, the mixed farming which, necessarily for his own comfort, he will bring with him will greatly enhance the importance of milch breeds of cattle, pigs, poultry and the produce of the kitchen garden in the rural economy of the River Plate.
ARGENTINE LIVE STOCK (LAST CENSUS, 30th MAY, 1908)
Number of
Head. Official Valuation.
$ currency. Equivalent in ￡.
Cattle 29,116,625 938,685,834 81,981,295
Sheep 67,211,758 287,359,076 25,096,863
Horses 7,531,376 205,826,834 17,976,143
Mules111 465,037 22,561,075 1,970,399
Swine 1,403,591 15,672,637 1,368,789
Goats 3,945,086 8,321,839 726,798
Asses112 285,088 2,854,950 249,341
1,481,282,245 129,369,628
[266]
[267]
EXPORTS OF PRINCIPAL ARGENTINE ANIMAL PRODUCTS, 1885 TO 1913
YEARS. Salted Horse Hides.
$ gold. Dry Horse Hides.
$ gold. Goatskins.
$ gold. Kidskins.
$ gold. Salted Ox and Cow Hides.
$ gold. Dry Ox and Cow Hides.
$ gold. Sheepskins.
$ gold. Wool.
$ gold. Horse hair.
$ gold. Tallow.
$ gold. Butter.
$ gold. Totals.
$ gold.
1885 682,260 65,651 1,081,762 641,050 4,488,204 7,511,919 6,267,377 35,950,111 1,004,649 3,489,169 — 61,182,152
1886 587,271 86,178 306,577 502,040 3,649,287 6,267,592 6,350,671 31,711,604 775,977 1,715,158 — 51,952,355
1887 523,128 231,236 460,140 699,569 3,639,095 8,408,742 6,698,408 32,749,315 998,643 788,777 — 55,187,053
1888 815,840 84,745 585,478 864,111 4,584,728 10,046,281 5,610,923 44,858,606 1,257,970 2,140,393 — 70,849,074
1889 759,588 77,487 821,590 598,677 5,260,945 8,448,069 11,386,593 56,709,774 1,157,525 3,297,471 1,618 88,519,337
1890 519,483 82,074 1,023,478 754,295 5,171,473 5,759,745 6,787,108 35,521,681 929,686 1,996,629 9,608 58,555,260
1891 908,912 146,275 676,329 687,851 3,782,143 5,049,556 4,833,991 36,037,518 936,470 2,391,388 660 55,451,093
1892 380,274 142,278 493,647 593,111 3,901,454 6,056,865 9,618,175 44,326,060 790,227 2,263,729 3,045 68,568,865
1893 673,936 205,186 392,958 607,019 3,073,310 5,869,157 4,158,777 25,006,348 829,762 2,549,763 8,347 43,374,563
1894 758,393 287,769 588,458 819,045 3,553,198 7,045,877 4,915,384 28,948,933 996,468 2,809,450 5,850 50,728,825
1895 1,381,719 203,652 648,600 765,702 6,332,204 8,940,950 3,711,966 31,029,522 1,070,770 3,807,751 123,600 58,016,456
1896 360,109 141,847 689,031 687,928 4,598,515 6,600,005 4,061,055 33,516,049 902,441 3,179,326 225,771 54,962,077
1897 515,708 240,763 779,750 652,331 4,605,572 8,596,344 4,094,640 37,450,244 980,650 2,656,048 249,928 60,721,978
1898 522,368 288,734 1,282,816 439,546 5,171,440 6,887,596 6,194,267 45,584,603 1,099,465 2,862,512 231,626 70,564,973
1899 459,824 233,484 1,211,087 541,632 4,334,832 8,001,132 9,308,535 71,283,619 1,129,912 2,205,593 294,872 100,004,524
1900 389,625 274,428 770,499 260,119 5,285,819 8,159,542 7,472,988 27,991,561 1,136,107 2,803,327 263,939 54,809,954
1901 390,826 293,405 791,745 304,494 5,281,756 8,848,438 7,339,811 44,666,483 1,004,677 3,902,715 377,545 73,201,895
1902 406,794 460,906 823,328 292,704 6,384,955 8,822,302 8,487,078 45,810,749 1,064,646 6,209,038 1,277,969 80,040,469
1903 453,237 424,616 847,465 221,996 5,360,748 7,787,819 10,132,065 50,424,168 1,147,879 4,755,579 2,132,056 83,687,628
1904 507,450 368,450 1,078,196 285,630 5,367,610 8,256,351 8,676,025 48,355,002 1,025,580 4,012,083 2,117,761 80,050,138
1905 160,799 444,027 1,080,305 264,462 9,147,153 9,929,391 9,483,396 64,312,927 1,245,788 5,321,099 2,157,294 103,546,641
1906 68,933 507,738 1,116,762 256,976 8,458,664 10,570,124 8,513,910 58,402,771 1,243,812 3,482,526 1,762,130 94,384,346
1907 51,691 261,721 574,204 237,055 8,345,410 8,175,722 8,458,030 59,252,948 1,280,122 4,806,835 1,214,173 92,657,911
1908 18,740 248,077 934,174 184,276 7,232,842 8,452,819 5,626,416 47,246,183 1,143,615 6,030,601 1,419,867 78,537,610
1909 28,026 657,009 1,124,524 335,735 14,214,746 14,763,693 8,483,993 59,921,151 1,368,724 7,573,230 2,597,089 111,067,920
1910 15,526 484,893 1,001,824 310,694 16,953,372 13,758,036 8,623,922 58,847,699 1,335,160 9,536,681 1,150,610 112,018,417
1911 33,374 591,748 998,631 285,114 19,642,362 14,797,653 7,724,872 50,494,027 1,581,710 11,768,900 558,253 108,476,644
1912 23,112 356,305 1,231,906 228,604 24,844,075 17,285,501 7,657,157 58,148,664 2,111,177 11,314,728 1,470,682 124,671,911
1913 20,394 375,253 1,162,878 270,857 24,543,795 13,988,905 5,586,253 45,270,016 2,681,723 9,944,642 1,513,758 105,358,474
Totals 12,417,340 8,265,934 24,578,142 13,592,623 228,209,707 263,086,126 206,263,786 1,309,828,336 34,221,335 129,617,141 21,068,053 2,251,148,523
= ￡ 2,463,757 1,640,066 4,876,615 2,696,954 45,279,703 52,199,628 40,925,354 259,886,575 6,789,947 25,717,686 4,180,169 ￡446,656,453
The average annual value of the Live Stock products of Uruguay during the five years ending 1913 was $39,682,850 (Uruguayan) = ￡8,443,315. Similarly with Cereal Exports, Live Stock Exports dropped in 1914, but have more than recovered during 1915. Evidently, however, no War-time Export Statistics can be taken as indications of the true productiveness of the countries concerned.
[268]
THE MEAT TRADE
The export of Meat from the River Plate Territories is no new thing; the first of such exports being authorized113 by Philip III of Spain in 1602.
The export under this edict was entirely confined to jerked beef; the salting industry only obtaining important development considerably114 later. It was not until 1793 that we find another Royal Edict which granted freedom from Export and Import duties for the salted meat and tallow of Buenos Aires.
About three-fourths of the exports under these Edicts usually went to Havana and the remainder to Spain.
The next development of this industry was begun when in 1841 a certain Hipolito Doinnel established a salting factory at the foot of the Cerro at Montevideo; at which he also manufactured soap, candles and sulphuric acid.
During all this period the export of hides was constantly much greater than that of meat.
The first mention of the export of horse hair relates to the year 1585, when from 300 to 400 mares were ordered to be killed so that their tails might be sent to the Guinea coast to be bartered115 for slaves.
The first privilege or patent granted in the now already independent River Plate Territories for meat preservation was granted by the Congress at Paraná, in 1854, to one Samuel Laffone Quevedo for the exclusive use of a machine invented by him for the preparation and pressing of salted beef.
Further experiment in preservation, by either heat, cold or in a vacuum, led to many local patents being granted for various processes from the year 1867 onward116, to the present day in fact; in respect of alternative systems or suggested improvements of those generally in use.
The historic beginning, however, of the present River Plate Meat Industry was made in the year 1877 in the spring of which La Frigorifique and in the autumn of which La Paraguay, specially31 fitted boats, sailed from Buenos Aires[269] with cargoes117 of meat preserved by the freezing and chilling systems discovered by Mr. Charles Tellier.
Thus, while in the past the River Plate Territories exported only sun-dried meat for the slaves on the Brazilian and Havana sugar plantations118, now they supply meat to the most highly civilized and exacting119 countries of the world.
The free export of frozen meat was sanctioned by the Argentine Congress in 1884, two years after the first of the existing cold storage establishments in Argentina had been started by Mr. Alfred Drabble. An establishment which still continues to carry on business successfully under the control of “The River Plate Fresh Meat Company.”
Other large companies which exploit this industry are the Sansinena “La Negra” (est. 1883), the “Las Palmas Produce Co.” (est. 1892), the “La Plata Cold Storage Co.” (est. 1902), the “La Blanca” Cold Storage (est. 1902), the Sansinena “Cuatreros” (est. 1903), “The Smithfield and Argentine Meat Co.” (est. 1905), and the “Frigorifico” (est. 1905).
The Meat Trade recognizes an average difference of weight between Argentine and Uruguayan beef and between Argentine, Uruguayan and “Patagonian” mutton. Argentine quarters of beef run about 12 to the ton and Uruguayan about 14 to the ton. Argentine mutton carcases run about 40, Uruguayan about 45 to the ton, and mutton carcases from Patagonia (in Argentina) some 2 or 3 lbs. lighter120 than Uruguayan.
Already in March, 1915, British Trade Reports showed that the meat trade in Great Britain was particularly dull on account of the extremely high prices ruling and the impossibility of retailers121 being able to get an equivalent in their shops. Since then, through the fact of the Governments of the belligerent122 powers being, as they are and are expected to be, large buyers, the conditions of the British Trade have been completely, if temporarily, changed by the War.[44]
[270]
[271]
MEAT TRADE EXPORTS FROM 1885 TO 1913
YEARS Frozen & chilled beef
$ gold Frozen mutton
$ gold Sundry123 frozen meats
$ gold Preserved meats
$ gold Extract of beef
$ gold Powder of meat
$ gold Preserved tongues
$ gold LIVE STOCK Condensed soup
$ gold Jerked beef
$ gold Totals
$ gold
Cattle
$ gold Sheep
$ gold
1885 1,680 75,323 — — — — — 2,345,313 58,552 — 4,204,077 6,684,945
1886 12,800 360,508 1,876 — 169,991 — 27,267 2,203,150 41,557 — 3,738,820 6,555,969
1887 — 963,112 8,837 — 75,888 15,250 20,990 1,415,625 42,884 8,257 2,398,424 4,949,267
1888 3,326 1,459,839 38,343 13,809 128,080 117,457 56,668 1,798 251 34,685 — 3,456,787 7,107,245
1889 58,742 1,322,604 17,930 101,714 105,668 19,830 58,706 3,194,113 66,526 6,889 6,139,875 11,092,597
1890 53,029 1,633,105 — 42,661 375,132 19,175 185,412 3,579,456 159,428 10,547 3,913,304 9,971,249
1891 5,902 1,862,247 31,211 258,926 389,454 62,116 195,753 3,997,270 387,545 7,728 3,566,854 10,765,006
1892 22,695 2,034,898 49,217 633,601 520,892 226,288 198,813 2,264,675 170,422 6,455 4,100,488 10,589,044
1893 222,279 2,003,254 34,324 196,080 198,070 75,497 171,584 4,433,944 362,904 — 4,115,134 11,813,070
1894 12,400 1,864,110 59,645 65,250 134,393 21,562 266,144 4,540,160 448,678 — 4,564,447 11,976,789
1895 63,482 1,675,273 16,120 92,325 208,399 21,217 158,911 7,003,230 1,292,527 12,069 4,225,419 14,768,972
1896 119,863 1,804,205 24,204 204,315 683,487 13,551 127,980 6,543,550 1,536,056 61,964 3,217,541 14,336,716
1897 169,644 2,035,778 27,903 115,127 257,772 5,582 112,270 5,018,222 1,512,684 22,941 2,466,313 11,744,236
1898 234,681 2,393,358 38,839 162,294 605,522 58,034 112,044 7,690,450 1,733,963 32,447 2,116,468 15,178,100
1899 363,141 2,265,069 36,863 181,600 765,504 — 116,439 6,824,010 1,631,041 29,342 2,038,413 14,251,422
1900 2,458,957 4,512,973 70,797 140,480 230,416 — 204,196 3,678,150 594,675 24,005 1,979,557 13,894,206
1901 4,490,447 5,041,023 91,648 94,717 433,590 — 205,525 1,980,372 78,248 16,217 2,879,455 15,311,242
1902 7,001,833 6,405,804 163,820 164,404 592,696 — 167,854 2,848,445 368,656 11,769 2,647,450 20,372,731
1903 8,151,956 6,251,959 203,973 374,154 693,174 — 142,170 4,437,420 503,241 100,599 1,542,018 22,400,664
1904 9,774,354 7,089,287 272,308 242,861 414,188 4,885 189,400 2,852,820 85,219 114,044 1,391,931 22,431,297
1905 15,285,693 6,268,059 356,299 248,826 870,950 599,460 155,615 5,160,483 364,209 122,066 3,738,444 33,170,104
1906 15,380,897 5,391,055 400,275 125,908 842,142 959,203 91,200 1,676,145 315,359 70,614 596,643 25,849,441
1907 13,822,162 5,582,781 450,198 159,477 1,791,574 1,536,828 227,119 2,062,390 331,701 107,789 1,178,056 27,250,075
1908 18,081,443 6,307,688 740,421 178,057 1,379,952 1,239,918 262,058 1,876,820 311,376 115,822 772,819 31,266,374
1909 21,065,747 5,319,612 649,206 639,013 2,702,988 1,057,675 360,444 4,087,820 265,908 188,735 1,325,053 37,662,201
1910 25,370,815 6,008,133 721,618 1,215,370 3,046,680 1,267,964 284,352 4,056,450 231,540 204,293 1,033,020 43,440,235
1911 31,283,396 6,873,285 946,859 1,541,333 1,031,154 904,730 214,150 8,202,750 332,070 175,744 1,661,615 53,167,086
1912 34,285,076 5,613,971 1,017,992 1,769,882 1,223,860 1,349,557 189,523 9,140,089 314,694 197,433 1,400,748 56,502,816
1913 36,622,889 3,674,206 910,311 1,257,391 1,598,136 1,097,566 131,952 6,848,830 311,991 375,392 658,097 53,486,761
Totals 244,419,329 104,092,519 7,381,037 10,219,575 21,469,752 10,673,945 4,634,539 122,120,394 13,888,339 2,023,161 77,067,270 617,989,860
= ￡ 48,495,900 20,653,277 1,464,480 2,027,693 4,259,871 2,117,846 919,551 24,230,236 2,755,622 401,421 15,291,125 122,617,022
[272]
During 1914 the meat producers and importers were alarmed by the purchase of most of the chief River Plate cold storage establishments by United States companies, who were credited with the intention of forming a “combine” to monopolize124 the industry. Certainly at the commencement of 1914 they were paying high prices to estancieros and selling considerably increased exports at low prices in the British markets. It would appear, however, as if matters were in the course of adjustment between all the River Plate Cold Storage companies when the War came and, as has just been indicated, altered all the conditions of the meat markets.
For all the above causes it is difficult to assign a value[45] to recent River Plate Meat Exports. Exports which it must be remembered leave no record as having paid ad valorem export duty, since they are duty-free exports.
As for the future of this trade there can be little doubt but that it will continue to increase commensurately with the available quantity of live stock of high quality. The Cold Storage Companies will buy no other and thus have constantly encouraged and advanced scientific breeding on the River Plate. It may safely be assumed that this trade is not likely to lose by the occurrence or effects of the War.
Recently, in view of what seemed a threatened shortage of cattle for export demands, producers commenced breeding from one-year-old cows; instead of beginning only at two years of age, as formerly was the South American custom.
Not only do the Cold Storage Companies export Meat but they also work up into marketable forms the various by-products of the animals they slaughter.
[273]
ARGENTINE MEAT TRADE 1888-1913
Progress of Exports in the last 26 years
Note.—As will be noticed from the subjoined tables, the decrease for 1913 was due to a falling off of the exports of frozen mutton and of cattle on the hoof.
[274]
[275]
FROZEN AND CHILLED BEEF
Progress of Argentine Exports compared with the principal exporting countries
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littoral
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| adj.海岸的；湖岸的；n.沿（海）岸地区 | |
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maritime
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| adj.海的，海事的，航海的，近海的，沿海的 | |
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temperate
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| adj.温和的，温带的，自我克制的，不过分的 | |
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converge
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| vi.会合；聚集，集中；(思想、观点等)趋近 | |
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well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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colonist
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| n.殖民者，移民 | |
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colonists
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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awakens
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| v.（使）醒( awaken的第三人称单数 )；（使）觉醒；弄醒；（使）意识到 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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Portuguese
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| n.葡萄牙人；葡萄牙语 | |
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treasurer
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| n.司库，财务主管 | |
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smuggling
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| n.走私 | |
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bribery
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| n.贿络行为，行贿，受贿 | |
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costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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contrived
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| adj.不自然的，做作的；虚构的 | |
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amass
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| vt.积累，积聚 | |
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sterling
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| adj.英币的(纯粹的，货真价实的)；n.英国货币(英镑) | |
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astounding
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| adj.使人震惊的vt.使震惊，使大吃一惊astound的现在分词) | |
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utilization
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| n.利用，效用 | |
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herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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27
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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exempted
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| 使免除[豁免]( exempt的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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domains
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| n.范围( domain的名词复数 )；领域；版图；地产 | |
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specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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ousted
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| 驱逐( oust的过去式和过去分词 )； 革职； 罢黜； 剥夺 | |
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radius
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| n.半径，半径范围；有效航程，范围，界限 | |
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maize
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| n.玉米 | |
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fodder
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| n.草料；炮灰 | |
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atmospheric
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| adj.大气的，空气的；大气层的；大气所引起的 | |
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slaughter
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| n.屠杀，屠宰；vt.屠杀，宰杀 | |
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initiated
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| n. 创始人 adj. 新加入的 vt. 开始，创始，启蒙，介绍加入 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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impetus
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| n.推动，促进，刺激；推动力 | |
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brackish
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| adj.混有盐的；咸的 | |
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nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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45
relegated
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| v.使降级( relegate的过去式和过去分词 )；使降职；转移；把…归类 | |
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inclement
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| adj.严酷的，严厉的，恶劣的 | |
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marsh
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| n.沼泽，湿地 | |
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abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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auspices
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| n.资助，赞助 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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52
dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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53
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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specified
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| adj.特定的 | |
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55
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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poultry
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| n.家禽，禽肉 | |
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infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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loom
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| n.织布机，织机；v.隐现，(危险、忧虑等)迫近 | |
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forage
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| n.(牛马的)饲料，粮草；v.搜寻，翻寻 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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obligatory
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| adj.强制性的，义务的，必须的 | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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census
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| n.(官方的)人口调查，人口普查 | |
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ministry
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| n.(政府的)部；牧师 | |
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jerseys
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| n.运动衫( jersey的名词复数 ) | |
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Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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deficient
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| adj.不足的，不充份的，有缺陷的 | |
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conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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hoof
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| n.(马，牛等的)蹄 | |
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authoritatively
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| 命令式地，有权威地，可信地 | |
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authoritative
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| adj.有权威的，可相信的；命令式的；官方的 | |
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tuberculosis
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| n.结核病，肺结核 | |
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pecuniary
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| adj.金钱的；金钱上的 | |
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immunity
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| n.优惠；免除；豁免，豁免权 | |
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ascertainment
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| n.探查，发现，确认 | |
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contagion
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| n.(通过接触的疾病)传染；蔓延 | |
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postpones
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| v.延期，推迟( postpone的第三人称单数 ) | |
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millennium
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| n.一千年，千禧年；太平盛世 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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contagious
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| adj.传染性的，有感染力的 | |
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prohibition
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| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
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efficiently
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| adv.高效率地，有能力地 | |
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inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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recurrence
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| n.复发，反复，重现 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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outlay
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| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
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illiterate
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| adj.文盲的；无知的；n.文盲 | |
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instructors
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| 指导者，教师( instructor的名词复数 ) | |
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conjectured
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| 推测，猜测，猜想( conjecture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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tyrant
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| n.暴君，专制的君主，残暴的人 | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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transformation
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| n.变化；改造；转变 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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miller
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| n.磨坊主 | |
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registration
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| n.登记，注册，挂号 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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rams
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| n.公羊( ram的名词复数 )；(R-)白羊（星）座；夯；攻城槌v.夯实（土等）( ram的第三人称单数 )；猛撞；猛压；反复灌输 | |
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indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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wares
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| n. 货物, 商品 | |
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108
draught
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| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
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monograph
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| n.专题文章，专题著作 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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111
mules
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| 骡( mule的名词复数 )； 拖鞋； 顽固的人； 越境运毒者 | |
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asses
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| n. 驴，愚蠢的人，臀部 adv. (常用作后置)用于贬损或骂人 | |
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113
authorized
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| a.委任的，许可的 | |
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114
considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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115
bartered
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| v.作物物交换，以货换货( barter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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onward
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| adj.向前的，前进的；adv.向前，前进，在先 | |
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cargoes
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| n.（船或飞机装载的）货物( cargo的名词复数 )；大量，重负 | |
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118
plantations
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| n.种植园，大农场( plantation的名词复数 ) | |
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exacting
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| adj.苛求的，要求严格的 | |
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120
lighter
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| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
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retailers
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| 零售商，零售店( retailer的名词复数 ) | |
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122
belligerent
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| adj.好战的，挑起战争的；n.交战国，交战者 | |
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123
sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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124
monopolize
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| v.垄断，独占，专营 | |
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