For students of society this means that we are to aim at the understanding of social processes, rather than stop short with the consideration of facts; facts are to be studied because they go to make up processes. We are not to stop short with the study of conditions, but go on to find out what tendencies certain conditions encourage. All social and industrial questions therefore are to be interpreted in their dynamic rather than in their static aspects.
In the Labor7 Museum of Hull8 House is shown a very ingenious diagram, representing the development on the mechanical side of the process of spinning, one of the oldest of the arts. It consists of a strip of cardboard, about a yard long, marked off into centuries and decades. From 2000 B.C. up to A.D. 1500 the hand spindle was the only instrument used. From 1500 up to the middle of the eighteenth century the spinning-wheel was used as well. From the middle of the eighteenth century up till today has been the period of the application of steam to spinning machinery9.
The profound symbolism expressed by the little chart goes beyond the interesting fact in the history of applied10 physics and mechanics which it tells, on to the tremendous changes which it sums up. The textile industries were primarily women's work, and with the mechanical changes in this group of primitive11 industries were inextricably bound up changes far more momentous12 in the social environment and the individual development of the worker.
Yet, if a profoundly impressive story, it is also a simple and plain one. It is so easy to understand because we have the help of history to interpret it to us, a help that fails us completely when, instead of being able to look from a distance and see events in their due proportions and in their right order, we are driven to extract as best we can a meaning from occurrences that happen and conditions that lie before our very eyes. That we cannot see the wood for the trees was never more painfully true than when we first try to tell a clear story amid the clatter13 and din6 of our industrial life. Past history is of little assistance in interpreting the social and industrial development, in which we ourselves are atoms. Much information is to be obtained, though piecemeal14 and with difficulty, but especially as relates to women, it has not yet been classified and ordered and placed ready to hand.
The industrial group activities of women are the inevitable15, though belated result of the entry of women into the modern industrial system, and are called forth16 by the new demands which life is making upon women's faculties17. We cannot stop short here, and consider these activities mainly in regard to what has led up to them, nor yet as to what is their extent and effect today. Far more important is it to try to discover what are the tendencies, which they as yet faintly and imperfectly, often confusedly, express.
In the labor movement of this country woman has played and is playing an important part. But in its completeness no one knows the story, and those who know sections of it most intimately are too busy living their own parts in that story, to pause long enough to be its chroniclers. For to be part of a movement is more absorbing than to write about it. Whom then shall we ask? To whom shall we turn for even an imperfect knowledge of the story, at once noble and sordid18, tragic19 and commonplace, of woman's side of the labor movement? To whom, you would say, but to the worker herself? And where does the worker speak with such clearness, with such unfaltering steadiness, as through her union, the organization of her trade?
In the industrial maze20 the individual worker cannot interpret her own life story from her knowledge of the little patch of life which is all her hurried fingers ever touch. Only an organization can be an interpreter here. Fortunately for the student, the organization does act as interpreter, both for the organized women who have been drawn21 into the labor movement and for those less fortunate who are still struggling on single-handed and alone. The organized workers in one way or another come into fairly close relations with their unorganized sisters. Besides, the movement in its modern form is still so young that there is scarcely a woman worker in the unions who did not begin her trade life as an unorganized toiler22.
Speaking broadly, the points upon which the trade-union movement concentrates are the raising of wages, the shortening of hours, the diminution23 of seasonal24 work, the abolition25 or regulation of piece-work, with its resultant speeding up, the maintaining of sanitary26 conditions, and the guarding of unsafe machinery, the enforcement of laws against child-labor, the abolition of taxes for power and working materials such as thread and needles, and of unfair fines for petty or unproved offenses—and with these, the recognition of the union to insure the obtaining and the keeping of all the rest.
A single case taken from a non-union trade (a textile trade, too) must serve to suggest the reasons that make organization a necessity. Twenty-one years ago in the bag and hemp27 factories of St. Louis, girl experts turned out 460 yards of material in a twelve-hour day, the pay being 24 cents per bolt (of from 60 to 66 yards). These girls earned $1.84 per day (on the bolt of from 60 to 66 yards). Four years ago a girl could not hold her job under 1,000 yards in a ten-hour day. "The fastest possible worker can turn out only 1,200 yards, and the price has dropped to 15 cents per hundred yards. The old rate of 24 cents per bolt used to net $1.80 to a very quick worker. The new rate to one equally competent is but $1.50. Workers have to fill a shuttle every minute and a half or two minutes. This necessitates28 the strain of constant vigilance, as the breaking of the thread causes unevenness29, and for this operators are laid off for two or three days. The operators are at such a tension that they not only stand all day, but may not even bend their knees. The air is thick with lint30, which the workers inhale31. The throat and eyes are terribly affected32, and it is necessary to work with the head bound up, and to comb the lint from the eyebrows33. The proprietors34 have to retain a physician to attend the workers every morning, and medicine is supplied free, as an accepted need for everyone so engaged. One year is spent in learning the trade, and the girls last at it only from three to four years afterwards. Some of them enter marriage, but many of them are thrown on the human waste-heap. One company employs nearly 1,000 women, so that a large number are affected by these vile35 and inhuman36 conditions. The girls in the trade are mostly Slovaks, Poles and Bohemians, who have not long been in this country. In their inexperience they count $1.50 as good wages, although gained at ever so great a physical cost."
These are intolerable conditions, and that tens of thousands are enduring similar hardships in the course of earning a living and contributing their share towards the commercial output of the country only aggravates37 the cruelty and the injustice38 to the helpless and defrauded39 girls. It is not an individual problem merely. It is a national responsibility shared by every citizen to see that such cruelty and such injustice shall cease. No system of commercial production can be permanently40 maintained which ignores the primitive rights of the human workers to such returns for labor as shall provide decent food, clothing, shelter, education and recreation for the worker and for those dependent upon him or her, as well as steadiness of employment, and the guarantee of such working conditions as shall not be prejudicial to health.
If the community is not to be moved either by pity or by a sense of justice then perhaps it will awake to a realization41 of the national danger involved when so many of the workers, and especially when so many of the girls and women work under circumstances ruinous to health, and affording, besides, small chance for all-round normal development on either the individual or the social side. These are evils whose results do not die out with the generation primarily involved, but must as well through inheritance as through environment injure the children of the workers, and their offspring yet unborn.
The passing away from the individual worker of personal control over the raw material and the instruments of production, which has accompanied the advent42 of the factory system, means that some degree of control corresponding to that formerly43 possessed44 by the individual should be assured to the group of workers in the factory or the trade. Such control is assured through the collective power of the workers, acting45 in co?peration in their trade union. One reason why the woman worker is in so many respects worse off than the man is because she has so far enjoyed so little of the protection of the trade union in her work. Why she has not had it, and why more and more she desires it, is what I will try to show in the following pages.
There is one criticism, to which almost every writer dealing46 with a present-day topic, lies exposed. That is, why certain aspects of the subject, or certain closely related questions, have either not been dealt with at all, or touched on only lightly. For instance, the subject of the organization of wage-earning women is indeed bound up with the industrial history of the United States, with the legal and social position of women, with the handicaps under which the colored races suffer, and with the entire labor problem.
In answer I can but plead that there had to be some limits. These are all matters which have been treated by many others, and I intentionally47 confined myself to a section of the field not hitherto covered.
Though the greatest care has been taken to avoid errors, some mistakes have doubtless crept in and the author would be glad to have these pointed48 out. I acknowledge gratefully what I owe to others, whether that help has come to me through books and periodical literature or through personal information from those possessing special expert knowledge. No one can ever begin to repay such a debt, but such thanks as are possible, I offer here.
The brief historical sketch49 of the early trade unions is based almost entirely50 upon the "History of Women in Trade unions," Volume X, of the "Report on the Condition of Women and Child Wage-Earners in the United States," issued by the Commissioner51 of Labor, then Mr. Charles P. Neill. Dr. John B. Andrews deals with the earlier period, and he shows how persistent52 have been the efforts of working-women to benefit themselves through collective action.
"Organization," he writes, "among working-women, contrary to the general impression, is not new. Women, from the beginning of the trade-union movement in this country have occupied an important place in the ranks of organized labor. For eighty years and over, women wage-earners in America have formed trade unions and gone on strike for shorter hours, better pay, and improved conditions. The American labor movement had its real beginning about the year 1825. In that year the tailoresses of New York formed a union."
The history of women in trade unions he divides into four periods: (1) the beginnings of organization, extending from 1825 to about 1840; (2) the development of associations interested in labor reform, including the beginnings of legislative53 activity, 1840 to 1860; (3) the sustained development of pure trade unions, and the rise of the struggle over the suffrage54, 1860 to 1880; and (4) the impress and educative influence of the Knights55 of Labor, 1881 to date, and the present development under the predominant leadership of the American Federation56 of Labor.
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1
curiously
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| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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steadily
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| adv.稳定地；不变地；持续地 | |
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din
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| n.喧闹声，嘈杂声 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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hull
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| n.船身；(果、实等的)外壳；vt.去(谷物等)壳 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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momentous
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| adj.重要的，重大的 | |
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clatter
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| v./n.(使)发出连续而清脆的撞击声 | |
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piecemeal
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| adj.零碎的；n.片，块；adv.逐渐地；v.弄成碎块 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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sordid
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| adj.肮脏的，不干净的，卑鄙的，暗淡的 | |
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tragic
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| adj.悲剧的，悲剧性的，悲惨的 | |
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maze
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| n.迷宫，八阵图，混乱，迷惑 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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toiler
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| 辛劳者，勤劳者 | |
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diminution
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| n.减少；变小 | |
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seasonal
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| adj.季节的，季节性的 | |
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abolition
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| n.废除，取消 | |
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sanitary
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| adj.卫生方面的，卫生的，清洁的，卫生的 | |
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hemp
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| n.大麻；纤维 | |
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necessitates
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| 使…成为必要，需要( necessitate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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unevenness
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| n. 不平坦，不平衡，不匀性 | |
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lint
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| n.线头；绷带用麻布，皮棉 | |
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inhale
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| v.吸入(气体等)，吸(烟) | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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eyebrows
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| 眉毛( eyebrow的名词复数 ) | |
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proprietors
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| n.所有人，业主( proprietor的名词复数 ) | |
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vile
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| adj.卑鄙的，可耻的，邪恶的；坏透的 | |
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inhuman
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| adj.残忍的，不人道的，无人性的 | |
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aggravates
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| 使恶化( aggravate的第三人称单数 )； 使更严重； 激怒； 使恼火 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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defrauded
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| v.诈取，骗取( defraud的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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permanently
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| adv.永恒地，永久地，固定不变地 | |
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realization
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| n.实现；认识到，深刻了解 | |
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advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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acting
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| n.演戏，行为，假装；adj.代理的，临时的，演出用的 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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intentionally
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| ad.故意地，有意地 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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51
commissioner
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| n.（政府厅、局、处等部门）专员，长官，委员 | |
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52
persistent
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| adj.坚持不懈的，执意的；持续的 | |
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53
legislative
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| n.立法机构，立法权；adj.立法的，有立法权的 | |
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54
suffrage
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| n.投票，选举权，参政权 | |
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55
knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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56
federation
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| n.同盟，联邦，联合，联盟，联合会 | |
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