The Celts all practised what is termed the Druidic cult6, their priests being poets, bards7, or gleemen, who could compose or recite in verse, ritual, laws, and heroic ballads8. During the four hundred years of Roman occupation, the Celts in England became somewhat Romanized, but the Irish, and their near relatives the Scots, were less influenced by Latin civilization. It is therefore in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales that the oldest traces of Celtic literature are found, for the bards there retained their authority and acted as judges after Christianity had been introduced, and as late as the sixth century. Although St. Patrick is reported to have forbidden these Irish bards to continue their pagan incantations, they continued to exert some authority, and it is said Irish priests adopted the tonsure10 which was their distinctive11 badge. The bards, who could recite and compose poems and stories, accompanying themselves on a rudimentary harp12, were considered of much higher rank than those who merely recited incantations. They transmitted poems, incantations, and laws, orally only, and no proof exists that the pagan Irish, for instance, committed any works to writing previous to the introduction of Christianity in their midst.
The heroic tales of Ireland from a large and well-marked epic13 cycle, the central tale of the series being the anonymous14 "Cattle of Cooly," wherein is related the war waged by the Irish Queen Mab against her husband for the possession of a mystic brown bull. In the course of this war the chief hero, Cuchulaind, makes himself famous by defending the country of Ulster single-handed! The still extant tales of this epic cycle number about thirty, and give in detail the lives of hero and heroine from birth to death, besides introducing many legends from Celtic mythology15. The oldest MS. version of these tales, in mingled16 prose and verse, dates back to the twelfth century, and is hence about as venerable as the Edda.
The Fennian or Oisianic poems and tales form another famous Irish cycle, Finn, or Fingal, their hero, having acted as commander for a body of mercenaries in the third century. His poet son, Oisin (the Ossian of later Romance), is said to have composed at least one of the poems in the famous Book of Leinster. Between the twelfth century and the middle of the fifteenth, this Fennian epos took on new life, and it continued to grow until the eighteenth century, when a new tale was added to the cycle.
The names of a few of the early Irish poets have been preserved in Irish annals, where we note, for instance, Bishop17 Fiance, author of a still extant metrical life of St. Patrick, and Dallan Frogaell, one of whose poems is in the "Book of the Dun Cow," compiled before 1106. Up to the thirteenth century most of the poets and harpers used to include Scotland in their circuit, and one of them, Muiredhach, is said to have received the surname of "the Scotchman," because he tarried so long in that country.
When, after the fifteenth century, Irish literature began to decline, Irish poems were recast in the native Scotch18 dialect, thus giving rise to what is known as Gaelic literature, which continued to flourish until the Reformation. Samples of this old Gaelic or Erse poetry were discovered by James Macpherson in the Highlands, taken down from recitation, and used for the English compilation19 known as the Poems of Ossian. Lacking sufficient talent and learning to remodel20 these fragments so as to produce a real masterpiece, Macpherson—who erroneously termed his work a translation—not only incurred21 the sharpest criticism, but was branded as a plagiarist22.
The Welsh, a poetic23 race too, boast of four great poets,—Taliessin, Aneurin, Llywarch Hen, and Myrden (Merlin). These composed poems possessing epic qualities, wherein mention is made of some of the characters of the Arthurian Cycle. One of the five Welsh MSS., which seem of sufficient antiquity24 and importance to deserve attention, is the Book of Taliessin, written probably during the fourteenth century. The Welsh also possess tales in verse, either historical or romantic, which probably antedated25 the extant prose versions of the same tales. Eleven of these were translated by Lady Charlotte Guest, and entitled Mabinogion (Tales for Children), although only four out of the eleven deserve that name. But some of these tales are connected with the great Arthurian cycle, as Arthur is the hero par3 excellence26 of Southern Wales, where many places are identified with him or his court.
Although almost as little is known of the historical Arthur as of the historical Roland, both are heroes of important epic cycles. Leader probably of a small band of warriors27, Arthur gradually became, in the epics28, first general-in-chief, then king, and finally emperor of all Britain. It is conjectured29 that the Arthurian legends must have passed from South Wales into Cornwall, and thence into Armorica, "where it is probable the Round Table was invented." Enriched by new accretions30 from time to time, the Arthurian cycle finally included the legend of the Holy Grail, which must have originated in Provence and have been carried into Brittany by jongleurs or travelling minstrels.
It has been ascertained31 that the legend of Arthur was familiar among the Normans before Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his books, and it certainly had an incalculable formative influence on European literature, much of which can be "traced back directly or indirectly32 to these legends." It was also a vehicle for that element which we call chivalry33, which the church infused into it to fashion and mould the rude soldiers of feudal34 times into Christian9 knights35, and, as it "expanded the imagination and incited36 the minds of men to inquiry37 beyond the conventional notions of things," it materially assisted in creating modern society.
After thus tracing the Celtic germs and influence in English literature, it becomes necessary to hark back to the time of the Teutonic invasions, since English thought and speech, manners and customs are all of Teutonic origin. The invaders38 brought with them an already formed language and literature, both of which were imposed upon the people. The only complete extant northern epic of Danish-English origin is Beowulf, of which a synopsis39 follows, and which was evidently sung by gleemen in the homes of the great chiefs. Apart from Beowulf, some remains40 of national epic poetry have come down to us in the fine fragments of Finnsburgh and Waldhere, another version of Walter of Aquitaine.
There are also the Legends of Havelock the Dane, of King Horn, of Beves of Hamdoun, and of Guy of Warwick, all four of which were later turned into popular prose romances. Intense patriotic41 feeling also gave birth to the Battle of Maldon, or Bryhtnoth's Death, an ancient poem, fortunately printed before it was destroyed by fire. This epic relates how the Viking Anlaf came to England with 93 ships, and, after harrying42 the coast, was defeated and slain43 in battle.
The earliest Christian poet in England, Caedmon, instead of singing of love or fighting, paraphrased45 the Scriptures46, and depicted47 the creation in such eloquent48 lines that he is said to have inspired some of the passages in Milton's Paradise Lost. Chief among the religious poems ascribed to Caedmon, are Genesis, Exodus49, and Daniel, but, although in general he strictly50 conforms with the Bible narrative51, he prefixed to Genesis an account of the fall of the angels, and thus supplied Milton with the most picturesque52 feature of his theme.
Next come the epic poems of Cynewulf, Crist, Juliana, Elene, and Andreas, also written in alliterative verse. In Elene the poet gives us the legend of finding of the cross[20] by the empress Helena, dividing his poem into fourteen cantos or fitts.
It is in Gildas and Nennius' Historia Britonum that we find the first mention of the legendary53 colonization54 of Britain and Ireland by refugees from Troy, and of the exploits of Arthur and the prophesies55 of Merlin. This work, therefore, contains some of the "germs of fables56 which expanded into Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of Britain, which was written in Latin some time before 1147," although this historian claims to derive57 his information from an ancient British book of which no trace can be found.
There is, besides, a very curious yet important legend cycle, in regard to a letter sent from Heaven to teach the proper observation of Sunday. The text of this letter can be found in old English in Wulfstan's homilies. Besides sacred legends, others exist of a worldly nature, such as the supposed letter from Alexander to Aristotle, the Wonders of the East, and the Story of Apollonius of Tyre. The first two, of course, formed part of the great Alexander cycle, while the latter supplied the theme for Pericles of Tyre.
With the Norman Conquest, French became the literary language of England, and modern romance was born. Romance cycles on "the matter of France" or Legends of Charlemagne, and on "the matter of Britain" or Legends of Arthur, became popular, and Geoffrey of Monmouth freely made use of his imagination to fill up the early history of Britain, for his so-called history is in reality a prose romance, whence later writers drew themes for many a tale.
Walter Map, born on the border of Wales in 1137, is credited with the no longer extant Latin prose romance of Lancelot du Lac, which included the Quest of the Holy Grail and the Death of Arthur. Besides Wace's Brut, we have that of Layamon, and both poets not only explain how Britain's name is derived58 from Brut,—a member of Priam's family and refugee from Troy,—but go on to give the history of other early kings of Britain, including Arthur. They often touch the true epic note,—as in the wrestling match between Corineus and the giant,—use similes59 drawn60 from every-day life, and supply us with legends of King Lear and of Cymbeline.
It was toward the end of the twelfth century that Arthur reached the height of his renown61 as romantic hero, the "matter of Britain" having become international property, and having been greatly enriched by poets of many climes. By this time Arthur had ceased to be a king of Britain, to become king of a fairy-land and chief exponent62 of chivalric63 ideals and aims.
To name all the poets who had a share in developing the Arthurian Legend would prove an impossible task, but Nennius, Gildas, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Wace, Layamon, Benoit de St. Maur, Chrestien de Troyes, Marie de France, Hartmann von der Aue, and Wolfram von Eschenbach have, in English, French, and German, helped to develop the "matter of Britain," and have managed to connect it with "the matter of France."
During the age of metrical romances (1200 to 1500), all the already extant cycles were remodelled64 and extended. Besides, not only were Greek and Latin epics translated so as to be within reach of all, but one country freely borrowed from another. Thus, the French romances of Huon de Bordeaux and of the Four Sons of Aymon found many admirers in England, where the former later supplied Shakespeare with some of the characters for a Midsummer Night's Dream. It was to offset65 the very popular romance of Alexander, that some patriotic poet evolved the romance of Richard Coeur de Lion, explaining how this king earned his well-known nickname by wrenching66 the heart out of a lion!
Some of these romances, such as Flores and Blancheflour, have "the voluptuous67 qualities of the East," make great use of magic of all kinds, and show the idyllic68 side of love. The tragedy of love is depicted in the romance of Tristram and Iseult, where a love-potion plays a prominent part. But, although knightly69 love and valor70 are the stock topics, we occasionally come across a theme of Christian humility71, like Sir Isumbras, or of democracy, as in the Squire72 of Low Degree and in the Ballads of Robin73 Hood74.
With the advent75 of Chaucer a new poet, a new language, and new themes appear. Many of his Canterbury tales are miniature epics, borrowed in general from other writers, but retold with a charm all his own. The Knight's Tale, or story of the rivalry76 in love of Palamon and Arcite, the tale of Gamelyn, and that of Troilus and Cressida, all contain admirable epic passages.
Spenser, our next epic poet, left us the unfinished Faerie Queene, an allegorical epic which shows the influence of Ariosto and other Italian poets, and contains exquisitely77 beautiful passages descriptive of nature, etc. His allegorical plot affords every facility for the display of his graceful78 verse, and is outlined in another chapter.
There are two curious but little-known English epics, William Warner's chronicle epic entitled "Albion's England" (1586), and Samuel Daniel's "Civil Wars." The first, beginning with the flood, carries the reader through Greek mythology to the Trojan War, and hence by means of Brut to the beginnings of English history, which is then continued to the execution of Mary Stuart. The second (1595) is an epic, in eight books, on the Wars of the Roses. Drayton also wrote, on the theme of the Civil Wars, an epic entitled "The Barons79' Wars," and undertook a descriptive and patriotic epic in "Polyolbion," wherein he makes a tour of England relating innumerable local legends.
Abraham Cowley composed an epic entitled "Davideis," or the troubles of David. He begins this work in four books with a description of two councils held in Heaven and hell in regard to the life of this worthy80.
Dryden was not only a translator of the classic epics, but projected an epic of his own about Arthur. Almost at the same time Pope was planning to write one on Brut, but he too failed to carry out his intentions, and is best known as the translator of the Iliad, although some authorities claim the "Rape81 of the Lock" is a unique sample of the épopée galante.
The poet Keats, whose life was so short, left us a complete mythological82 epic in "Endymion," a fragment of one in "Hyperion," and a reproduction of one of the old romances in "Isabella, or a Pot of Basil."
Shelley, Keats' contemporary, wrote poems abounding83 in epic passages,—"Alastor, or the Spirit of Solitude," "The Revolt of Islam," "Adonais," and "Prometheus Unbound"; while Byron's epical84 poems are "Manfred," "The Corsair," and "Don Juan"; and Scott's, "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," "Marmion," "The Lady of the Lake," and "The Bridal of Triermain."
The greatest of Coleridge's poems, "The Ancient Mariner," is sometimes called a visionary epic, while his "Christabel" conforms more closely to the old roman d'adventure.
As the translator of the epical romances of "Amadis de Gaule" and "Palmerin," Southey won considerable renown; he also wrote the oriental epics "Thalaba" and "The Curse of Kehama," as well as epical poems on "Madoc," "Joan of Arc," and "Roderick, the Last of the Goths."
Moore, although preeminently a lyric85 poet, has left us the eastern epic "Lalla Rookh," and Lockhart some "Spanish Ballads" which paraphrase44 the Cid.
Among Macaulay's writings the "Lays of Ancient Rome" have epic qualities, which are also found in Leigh Hunt's "Story of Rimini."
The plot of Tristram has been utilized86 both by Matthew Arnold and by
Swinburne, while William and Lewis Morris have rewritten some of the
old classic stories in "The Earthly Paradise," the "Life and Death of
Jason," the "Defense87 of Guinevere," and the "Epic of Hades."
It was, however, the Victorian poet-laureate Tennyson who gave the Arthurian Legend its latest and most artistic88 touches in "Idylls of the King." Some critics also claim as an example of the domestic epic his "Enoch Arden."
Among recent writers, sundry89 novelists have been hailed as authors of prose epics. Thomas Westwood has composed in excellent verse the "Quest of the Sangreall," Mrs. Trask "Under King Constantine," a notable addition to the Arthurian cycle, and Stephen Philips has sung of Ulysses and of King Alfred.
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1
isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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generic
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| adj.一般的，普通的，共有的 | |
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par
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| n.标准，票面价值，平均数量；adj.票面的，平常的，标准的 | |
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surmised
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| v.臆测，推断( surmise的过去式和过去分词 )；揣测；猜想 | |
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subdivided
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| 再分，细分( subdivide的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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cult
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| n.异教，邪教；时尚，狂热的崇拜 | |
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bards
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| n.诗人( bard的名词复数 ) | |
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ballads
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| 民歌，民谣，特别指叙述故事的歌( ballad的名词复数 )； 讴 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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tonsure
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| n.削发；v.剃 | |
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distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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harp
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| n.竖琴；天琴座 | |
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epic
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| n.史诗，叙事诗；adj.史诗般的，壮丽的 | |
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anonymous
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| adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的 | |
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mythology
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| n.神话，神话学，神话集 | |
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mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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compilation
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| n.编译，编辑 | |
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remodel
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| v.改造，改型，改变 | |
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incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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plagiarist
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| n.剽窃者，文抄公 | |
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poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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antedated
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| v.（在历史上）比…为早( antedate的过去式和过去分词 )；先于；早于；（在信、支票等上）填写比实际日期早的日期 | |
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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epics
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| n.叙事诗( epic的名词复数 )；壮举；惊人之举；史诗般的电影（或书籍） | |
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conjectured
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| 推测，猜测，猜想( conjecture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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accretions
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| n.堆积( accretion的名词复数 )；连生；添加生长；吸积 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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indirectly
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| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
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chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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feudal
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| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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incited
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| 刺激，激励，煽动( incite的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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invaders
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| 入侵者，侵略者，侵入物( invader的名词复数 ) | |
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synopsis
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| n.提要，梗概 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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harrying
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| v.使苦恼( harry的现在分词 )；不断烦扰；一再袭击；侵扰 | |
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slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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paraphrase
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| vt.将…释义，改写；n.释义，意义 | |
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paraphrased
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| v.释义，意译( paraphrase的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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46
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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depicted
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| 描绘，描画( depict的过去式和过去分词 )； 描述 | |
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48
eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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exodus
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| v.大批离去，成群外出 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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51
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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52
picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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legendary
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| adj.传奇（中）的，闻名遐迩的；n.传奇（文学） | |
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colonization
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| 殖民地的开拓，殖民，殖民地化； 移殖 | |
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prophesies
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| v.预告，预言( prophesy的第三人称单数 ) | |
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fables
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| n.寓言( fable的名词复数 )；神话，传说 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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similes
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| （使用like或as等词语的）明喻( simile的名词复数 ) | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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renown
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| n.声誉，名望 | |
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exponent
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| n.倡导者，拥护者；代表人物；指数，幂 | |
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chivalric
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| 有武士气概的，有武士风范的 | |
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remodelled
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| v.改变…的结构[形状]( remodel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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offset
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| n.分支，补偿；v.抵消，补偿 | |
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wrenching
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| n.修截苗根，苗木铲根（铲根时苗木不起土或部分起土）v.（猛力地）扭( wrench的现在分词 )；扭伤；使感到痛苦；使悲痛 | |
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voluptuous
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| adj.肉欲的，骄奢淫逸的 | |
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68
idyllic
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| adj.质朴宜人的，田园风光的 | |
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69
knightly
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| adj. 骑士般的 adv. 骑士般地 | |
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70
valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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71
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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72
squire
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| n.护卫, 侍从, 乡绅 | |
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73
robin
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| n.知更鸟，红襟鸟 | |
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74
hood
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| n.头巾，兜帽，覆盖；v.罩上，以头巾覆盖 | |
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75
advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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76
rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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77
exquisitely
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| adv.精致地；强烈地；剧烈地；异常地 | |
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graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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79
barons
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| 男爵( baron的名词复数 )； 巨头； 大王； 大亨 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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81
rape
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| n.抢夺，掠夺，强奸；vt.掠夺，抢夺，强奸 | |
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82
mythological
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| adj.神话的 | |
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83
abounding
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| adj.丰富的，大量的v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的现在分词 ) | |
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epical
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| adj.叙事诗的，英勇的 | |
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85
lyric
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| n.抒情诗，歌词；adj.抒情的 | |
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utilized
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| v.利用，使用( utilize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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87
defense
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| n.防御，保卫；[pl.]防务工事；辩护，答辩 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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