“Li ruscelletti, che de’ verdi colli
Del Casentin discendon giuso in Arno,
Facendi i lor canali e freddi e molli
Sempre mi stanno innanzi....”
(Inf. 30, 65 ff.)
The Casentino is the name given to the upper valley of the Arno, where the river, rising in numerous streams on the slopes of the Falterona, flows southwards for about forty miles before it swings round in its course and runs north-westwards in the direction of Florence. The district, to use the words of a modern Italian writer, is “formed by nature in the shape of a basket”—those oval flower-baskets we see carried about the streets of Florence—“with its lowest part green with meadows, fields and vineyards, and encircled and, so to say, closed in by lofty mountains.” It is a district rich in memories of{2} Dante and other associations. The halo of early Christian1 life, the gloom and splendour of feudal2 times, and the glow of the Renaissance3, all linger here. And many beauties of nature, many feasts of the imagination here await the traveller who foregoes for a time the hasty temper of the tourist.
It was late one afternoon in April when we left the train at Bibbiena, and, shouldering our knapsacks, wended our way up from the station to the town. We were well in the land of the ancient Etruscans, that mysterious and visionary people whose fleet swept the Tyrrhenian Sea at a time when the greatness of Rome was not. Like other Etruscan cities, Bibbiena lies on the summit of a hill, and many examples of Etruscan art industry have been discovered in its neighbourhood.
It had been cold and cheerless in the noisy Italian train rattling4 up from Arezzo. A dull, stormy sky gave a desolate5 aspect to the irregular country and cast a shadow over the rugged6 mountains. But as we climbed the hill of Bibbiena our spirits rose. Side valleys opening up in different directions revealed winding7 roads and castle-crowned elevations8; Poppi, with its soaring tower, stood up in bold outline; the higher mountains, many of them snow-capped, seemed to unite in one bold, forcible sweep. Which of these heights sheltered Camaldoli,{3}
[Image unavailable.]
CHIESA MAGGIORE, LA VERNA
{5}{4}
with its reminiscences of St Romuald?—which the retreat of La Verna, with its thoughts of St Francis? Our anticipations9 were in no way damped when we found ourselves half an hour later sitting in the little dining-room of the Albergo Amorosi. Certainly the chief merit of the broth10 was its warmth,—the pigeon was not drawn11, though it was tender,—and the cheese could never have suggested the difference between this commodity and chalk. But the delicious fried artichokes, and the assurance of mine host that to-morrow he could procure12 anything we pleased, went far to restoring our confidence. It was Easter Sunday, visitors could hardly have been expected at this late hour. Besides, the bedrooms and general appurtenances of the place were unexceptionable. So we made the best of our meal, examined the visitors’ book with deliberate curiosity, and then we sat down by the window and watched the fading light of day across a bit of old-fashioned garden, with its blossoming almond tree, the tender green of the budding fig13, and the rusty14 black of a row of cypresses15 between us and the distant mountains.
Looking back to the time when the Casentino as such emerges from the dimness of the unrecorded past, we find obscurity hanging over this district longer than over adjacent parts of Tuscany. The circle of its enclosing mountains gave the Casentino a remoteness, which qualified{6} its fate in the past as it adds a special colour to its life of to-day. The period of Etruscan independence and the period of Roman rule have left few obvious traces; it is of the times following the barbarian16 invasion that the district chiefly speaks. When men are thrown into new surroundings, new qualities come into play. There is something fascinating in analysing the influence which race has had upon race, and the results of bringing peoples of different degrees of culture into juxtaposition17. All that survived of Roman culture and learning after the advent18 of the barbarians19 was to be found in the towns. The German invaders20 on the banks of the Arno, as on those of the Rhine, were impatient of the restraints of mutual21 dependence—they avoided life in cities. Once in possession of new lands, the leaders of the conquering host divided, each leader sought a centre of authority for himself, and the lesser22 military chiefs strove to equal the autonomy of the greater. Solitary23 and as reserved towards compeers as the eagle, these men made their homes by preference on rocky heights, which nature protected against surprise, and which the art of defence succeeded in rendering24 almost impregnable.
History chronicled at least four distinct barbarian descents into Northern Italy in the fifth and sixth centuries. Different races and different branches of the same race ousted25 one{7} another from possession of the land. When the tumult26 of contrary tides subsided27, the Langobards held the sway, which they retained for over two hundred years. The Langobard’s spirit is that of the hunter—it lives to this day in the architectural decorations of North Italian churches, where the bristling28 boar and the leashed hound, the fierce wolf and the rampant29 lion, the flying deer and the hungry bird, with nondescript monsters of various kinds, do service in ornamenting30 fa?ades, supporting columns and relieving capitals.
We know little concerning the settling of Langobard chiefs in the Casentino, but the district, with its fruitful upland tracts31, its rocky elevations and wooded side valleys, had great attractions for the invaders, since it favoured the mode of life they held dear. When authentic32 records begin, many strongholds of the district were in the hands of men who were Langobards by descent, and who became progenitors33 of some of the most distinguished34 families of Tuscany. Among these the Guidi claim special attention. For the history of this family decided35 the history of the Casentino for over four hundred years. No family attained36 a power at all equalled by theirs, no family so deeply impressed the mind of Dante, and none is so frequently mentioned in the Divine Comedy.{8}
It was against the further advance of the Langobards that the Pope in the eighth century called upon the loyal Franks to interfere37 in behalf of the temporal estates of the Church. Once again the fertile plains of Italy were overrun by Germans, but in this case by Germans who had grasped the idea of a centralised system of government. Before the unity38 of the Franks the scattered39 and divided nobles of Italy were as chaff40 before the wind. The greater number of her dukes, counts and barons41 recognised Frankish over-lordship, and in due course became feudatories to the Empire. This relation eventually secured to the Emperor his staunchest allies against the growing Italian communes—it in no way debarred the Italian nobles from living as independent chiefs, warring against one another as personal hatred42, jealousy43 and private revenge prompted. The distinguishing qualities of these men—they may well be called virtues—were audacity44, enterprise and a boundless45 self-reliance. But they were qualities unseparated as yet from the revolting contempt for life and limb of a rough barbarian age, a contempt that found expression in wanton stabbing, poisoning and mutilation as a convenient mode of retaliation46 on enemies.
But a safeguard necessary to the very existence of these men now lay in their recognition of the claims of the Church. The Pope, as a{9} temporal ruler, might be defied; as a spiritual ruler, who had hosts untold47 at his command, he was a power and a strength to be respected. Turbulent barons, whose play often ended in bloodshed, began to defer48 to the priest and to patronise the monk49. The ascent50 to the stronghold was flanked by a chapel51, and monastic colonies were invited to settle in the most fruitful districts.
There can be no doubt that the men who, thus prompted, accepted Mother Church, accepted her from purely52 utilitarian53 motives54. But Mother Church was apparently55 content to dwell with them on the terms proposed, for she blessed them with many blessings56. Exactly those dynasties prospered57 whose piety58 is borne out by the numerous endowments which they made. Certainly these were made on conditions which left a loophole for interference on the part of those who made them. But the greater prevails over the lesser, whatever terms the lesser may make. The Church entered into the alliance in obedience59 to a call from the barons, but in course of time she shook herself free from their control.
The history of the Casentino illustrates60 the sequence of these changes. Few rocky heights but are crowned by the ruins of a stronghold, few upland expanses but preserve the remembrance of an ancient monastery61. The word{10} badia, the ancient term for monastery, survives in a number of local names, such as Badia a Tega, Badia a Prataglia. These monasteries62 went through stormy experiences towards the close of the tenth century, and all owing to the high-handed manner in which their patrons dealt with them. The Church was defiled63 by iniquity64 of traffic. On the one side laymen65 sold Church property and privileges, simony in the wider sense of the word. On the other, ecclesiastics66 themselves traded in benefices, simony in its narrower sense.
One of the important movements set on foot to oppose this evil is associated with the name of St Romuald, and through him with the Casentino, where the monastery of Camaldoli most directly embodied67 and most religiously preserved the spirit of one of Christianity’s most zealous68 champions. Camaldoli in the course of centuries has attracted visitors of many tempers from many countries. In Dante’s estimation Romuald was so important a person that he pictured him in Paradise as one of the chosen two whom St Benedict pointed69 out to him by name.
Among those whom the fame of Romuald brought to the Casentino was St Francis of Assisi. On his journey he passed La Verna, that solitary mountain height in the Apennines which appeared to him as a chosen spot for{11} meditation70. Many visitors come to see La Verna in the Casentino who come there to see nothing else, especially of late years, since a less prejudiced view of the saints has helped to restore the importance of St Francis on a wider basis than that of a purely devotional interest.
But not only the votaries71 of St Francis find a shrine72 at which to pay homage73 in the Casentino. Since the publication of the Voyages Dantesques by Ampère, every student of Dante longs to wander among these hills, for here the poet stayed at different periods of his life, and here his admirers are especially able to appreciate those occasional references to the beauties of nature, which are as manna in the wilderness74 among the terrible descriptions of Hell and Purgatory75. In the Casentino Dante fought in his youth, hither he came in his manhood to stay with the Counts Guidi when Florence had closed her gates to him. And again the revived study of Dante’s works during the Renaissance was directly associated with the Casentino. Cristofero Landini, who first published a commentary on Dante, was from there; and Bandini, who wrote a famous work on the revival76 of learning in Italy, describes this revival in connection with Landini, and prefaces his work by an account of the numerous distinguished men to whom the Casentino gave birth.{12}
Thus on the very point of entering the Casentino were we made to pause and call to remembrance some of those periods which associated the district with so much that is worthy77 of recollection. If knowledge be the wing wherewith we fly to heaven, it is also the key wherewith to unlock the treasures of this earth. And it seemed the more needful to recall the distinguishing features of the past as the different periods gained in importance when seen on a wider historical background. But discursiveness78 too has its limits. Wisely were the words spoken, “a time to break down and a time to build up.” It so happened that we had each brought a copy of Dante, though books are not a pleasant burden on a walking tour. But the trouble of carrying them was well repaid by the enjoyment79 we derived80 from studying them during the evening hours while in the land in which we were so frequently reminded of the poet.
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1
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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feudal
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| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
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3
renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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4
rattling
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| adj. 格格作响的, 活泼的, 很好的 adv. 极其, 很, 非常 动词rattle的现在分词 | |
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5
desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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6
rugged
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| adj.高低不平的，粗糙的，粗壮的，强健的 | |
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7
winding
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| n.绕，缠，绕组，线圈 | |
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8
elevations
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| （水平或数量）提高( elevation的名词复数 )； 高地； 海拔； 提升 | |
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anticipations
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| 预期( anticipation的名词复数 )； 预测； （信托财产收益的）预支； 预期的事物 | |
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broth
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| n.原(汁)汤(鱼汤、肉汤、菜汤等) | |
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11
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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12
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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13
fig
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| n.无花果(树) | |
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rusty
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| adj.生锈的；锈色的；荒废了的 | |
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cypresses
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| n.柏属植物，柏树( cypress的名词复数 ) | |
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barbarian
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| n.野蛮人；adj.野蛮(人)的；未开化的 | |
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juxtaposition
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| n.毗邻，并置，并列 | |
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18
advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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invaders
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| 入侵者，侵略者，侵入物( invader的名词复数 ) | |
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21
mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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lesser
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| adj.次要的，较小的；adv.较小地，较少地 | |
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23
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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24
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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25
ousted
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| 驱逐( oust的过去式和过去分词 )； 革职； 罢黜； 剥夺 | |
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26
tumult
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| n.喧哗；激动，混乱；吵闹 | |
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27
subsided
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| v.（土地）下陷（因在地下采矿）( subside的过去式和过去分词 )；减弱；下降至较低或正常水平；一下子坐在椅子等上 | |
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28
bristling
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| a.竖立的 | |
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29
rampant
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| adj.(植物)蔓生的；狂暴的，无约束的 | |
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30
ornamenting
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| v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的现在分词 ) | |
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31
tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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authentic
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| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
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progenitors
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| n.祖先( progenitor的名词复数 )；先驱；前辈；原本 | |
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34
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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37
interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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38
unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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39
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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40
chaff
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| v.取笑，嘲笑；n.谷壳 | |
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41
barons
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| 男爵( baron的名词复数 )； 巨头； 大王； 大亨 | |
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42
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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43
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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44
audacity
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| n.大胆，卤莽，无礼 | |
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45
boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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46
retaliation
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| n.报复，反击 | |
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untold
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| adj.数不清的，无数的 | |
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48
defer
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| vt.推迟，拖延；vi.(to)遵从，听从，服从 | |
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49
monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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50
ascent
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| n.(声望或地位)提高；上升，升高；登高 | |
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51
chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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52
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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53
utilitarian
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| adj.实用的，功利的 | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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55
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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56
blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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prospered
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| 成功，兴旺( prosper的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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58
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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60
illustrates
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的第三人称单数 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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61
monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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63
defiled
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| v.玷污( defile的过去式和过去分词 )；污染；弄脏；纵列行进 | |
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64
iniquity
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| n.邪恶；不公正 | |
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65
laymen
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| 门外汉，外行人( layman的名词复数 )； 普通教徒（有别于神职人员） | |
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66
ecclesiastics
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| n.神职者，教会，牧师( ecclesiastic的名词复数 ) | |
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embodied
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| v.表现( embody的过去式和过去分词 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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zealous
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| adj.狂热的，热心的 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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meditation
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| n.熟虑，（尤指宗教的）默想，沉思，（pl.）冥想录 | |
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71
votaries
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| n.信徒( votary的名词复数 )；追随者；（天主教）修士；修女 | |
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72
shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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homage
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| n.尊敬，敬意，崇敬 | |
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wilderness
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| n.杳无人烟的一片陆地、水等，荒漠 | |
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75
purgatory
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| n.炼狱；苦难；adj.净化的，清洗的 | |
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revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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discursiveness
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| n.漫谈离题，推论 | |
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enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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80
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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