Our long intercourse3 with the Wandering Koraks gave us an opportunity of observing many of their peculiarities4, which would very likely escape the notice of a transient visitor; and as our journey until we reached the head of Penzhinsk Gulf5 was barren of incident, I shall give in this chapter all the information I could gather relative to the language, religion, superstitions6, customs, and mode of life of the Kamchatkan Koraks.
There can be no doubt whatever that the Koraks and the powerful Siberian tribe known as Chukchis (or Tchucktchis, according to Wrangell) descended7 originally from the same stock, and migrated together from their ancient locations to the places where they now live. Even after several centuries of separation, they resemble each other so closely that they can hardly be distinguished8, and their languages differ less one from the other than the Portuguese9 differs from the Spanish. Our Korak interpreters found very little difficulty in conversing10 with Chukchis; and a comparison of vocabularies which we afterward11 made showed only a slight dialectical variation, which could be easily accounted for by a few centuries of separation. None of the Siberian languages with which I am acquainted are written, and, lacking a fixed12 standard of reference, they change with great rapidity. This is shown by a comparison of a modern Chukchi vocabulary with the one compiled by M. de Lesseps in 1788. Many words have altered so materially as to be hardly recognisable. Others, on the contrary, such as "tin tin," ice, "oottoot," wood, "wee?gay," no, "ay," yes, and most of the numerals up to ten, have undergone no change whatever. Both Koraks and Chukchis count by fives instead of tens, a peculiarity13 which is also noticeable in the language of the Co-Yukons in Alaska. The Korak numerals are:—
Innín, One.
Née-ak°h, Two.
Nee-ók°h, Three.
Née-ák°h, Four.
Míl-li-gen, Five.
In-nín míl-li-gen, Five-one.
Née-ak°h " Five-two.
Nee-ók°h " Five-three.
Née-ák°h " Five-four.
Meen-ye-geet-k°hin, Ten.
After ten they count ten-one, ten-two, etc., up to fifteen, and then ten-five-one; but their numerals become so hopelessly complicated when they get above twenty, that is would be easier to carry a pocketful of stones and count with them, than to pronounce the corresponding words.
Fifty-six, for instance, is "Nee-akh-khleep-kin-meen-ye-geet-khin-par-ol-in-nín-míl-li-gen," and it is only fifty-six after it is all pronounced! It ought to be at least two hundred and sixty-three millions nine hundred and fourteen thousand seven hundred and one—and then it would be long. But the Koraks rarely have occasion to use high numbers; and when they do, they have an abundance of time. It would be a hard day's work for a boy to explain in Korak one of the miscellaneous problems in Ray's Higher Arithmetic. To say 324 × 5260 = 1,704,240 would certainly entitle him to a recess15 of an hour and a reward of merit. We were never able to trace any resemblance whatever between the Koraki-Chukchi language and the languages spoken by the natives on the eastern side of Bering Strait. If there be any resemblance, it must be in grammar rather than in vocabulary.
The religion of all the natives of north-eastern Siberia, wandering and settled, including six or seven widely different tribes, is that corrupted16 form of Buddhism17 known as Shamanism. It is a religion which varies considerably18 in different places and among different people; but with the Koraks and Chukchis it may be briefly19 defined as the worship of the evil spirits who are supposed to be embodied20 in all the mysterious powers and manifestations21 of Nature, such as epidemic22 and contagious23 diseases, severe storms, famines, eclipses, and brilliant auroras. It takes its name from the shamáns or priests, who act as interpreters of the evil spirits' wishes and as mediators between them and man. All unnatural25 phenomena26, and especially those of a disastrous27 and terrible nature, are attributed to the direct action of these evil spirits, and are considered as plain manifestations of their displeasure. It is claimed by many that the whole system of Shamanism is a gigantic imposture28 practised by a few cunning priests upon the easy credulity of superstitious29 natives. This I am sure is a prejudiced view. No one who has ever lived with the Siberian natives, studied their character, subjected himself to the same influences that surround them, and put himself as far as possible in their places, will ever doubt the sincerity30 of either priests or followers31, or wonder that the worship of evil spirits should be their only religion. It is the only religion possible for such men in such circumstances. A recent writer [Footnote: W.E.H. Lecky, History of Rationalism in Europe.] of great fairness and impartiality32 has described so admirably the character of the Siberian Koraks, and the origin and nature of their religious belief, that I cannot do better than quote his words:—
"Terror is everywhere the beginning of religion. The phenomena which impress themselves most forcibly on the mind of the savage33 are not those which enter manifestly into the sequence of natural laws, and which are productive of most beneficial effects; but those which are disastrous and apparently34 abnormal. Gratitude35 is less vivid than fear, and the smallest infraction36 of a natural law produces a deeper impression than the most sublime37 of its ordinary operations. When, therefore, the most startling and terrible aspects of Nature are presented to his mind—when the more deadly forms of disease or natural convulsion desolate38 his land, the savage derives39 from them an intensely realised perception of diabolical40 presence. In the darkness of the night; amid the yawning chasms41 and the wild echoes of the mountain gorge42; under the blaze of the comet or the solemn gloom of the eclipse; when famine has blasted the land; when the earthquake and the pestilence43 have slaughtered44 their thousands; in every form of disease which refracts and distorts the reason, in all that is strange, portentous45, and deadly, he feels and cowers46 before the supernatural. Completely exposed to all the influences of Nature, and completely ignorant of the chain of sequence that unites its various parts, he lives in continual dread47 of what he deems the direct and isolated48 acts of evil spirits. Feeling them continually near him, he will naturally endeavour to enter into communion with them. He will strive to propitiate49 them with gifts. If some great calamity50 has fallen upon him, or if some vengeful passion has mastered his reason, he will attempt to invest himself with their authority, and his excited imagination will soon persuade him that he has succeeded in his desire."
These pregnant words are the key to the religion of the Siberian natives, and afford the only intelligible52 explanation of the origin of shamans. If any proof were needed that this system of religion is the natural outgrowth of human nature in certain conditions of barbarism, it would be furnished by the universal prevalence of Shamanism in north-eastern Siberia among so many diverse tribes of different character and different origin. The tribe of Tunguses for instance, is certainly of Chinese descent, and the tribe of Yakuts is certainly Turkish. Both came from different regions, bringing different beliefs, superstitions, and modes of thought; but, when both were removed from all disturbing agencies and subjected to the same external influences, both developed precisely53 the same system of religious belief. If a band of ignorant, barbarous Mahometans were transported to north-eastern Siberia, and compelled to live alone in tents, century after century, amid the wild, gloomy scenery of the Stanavoi Mountains, to suffer terrific storms whose causes they could not explain, to lose their reindeer suddenly by an epidemic disease which defied human remedies, to be frightened by magnificent auroras that set the whole universe in a blaze, and decimated by pestilences54 whose nature they could not understand and whose disastrous effects they were powerless to avert—they would almost inevitably55 lose by degrees their faith in Allah and Mahomet, and become precisely such Shamanists as the Siberian Koraks and Chukchis are today. Even a whole century of partial civilisation56 and Christian57 training cannot wholly counteract58 the irresistible59 Shamanistic influence which is exerted upon the mind by the wilder, more terrible manifestations of Nature in these lonely and inhospitable regions. The Kamchadals who accompanied me to the Samanka Mountains were the sons of Christian parents, and had been brought up from infancy60 in the Greek Church; they were firm believers in the Divine atonement and in Divine providence61, and prayed always night and morning for safety and preservation62; yet, when overtaken by a storm in that gloomy range of mountains, the sense of the supernatural overcame their religious convictions, God seemed far away while evil spirits were near and active, and they sacrificed a dog, like very pagans, to propitiate the diabolical wrath63 of which the storm was an evidence. I could cite many similar instances, where the strongest and apparently most sincere convictions of the reality of Divine government and superintendence have been overcome by the influence upon the imagination of some startling and unusual phenomenon of Nature. Man's actions are governed not so much by what he intellectually believes as by what he vividly64 realises; and it is this vivid realisation of diabolical presence which has given rise to the religion of Shamanism.
The duties of the shamans or priests among the Koraks are, to make incantations over the sick, to hold communication with the evil spirits, and to interpret their wishes and decrees to man. Whenever any calamity, such as disease, storm, or famine, comes upon a band, it is of course attributed to some spirit's displeasure, and the shaman is consulted as to the best method of appeasing65 his wrath. The priest to whom application is made assembles the people in one of the largest tents of the encampment, puts on a long robe marked with fantastic figures of birds and beasts and curious hieroglyphic66 emblems67, unbinds his long black hair, and taking up a large native drum, begins to sing in a subdued68 voice to the accompaniment of slow, steady drum-beats. As the song progresses it increases in energy and rapidity, the priest's eyes seem to become fixed, he contorts his body as if in spasms69, and increases the vehemence70 of his wild chant until the drum-beats make one continuous roll. Then, springing to his feet and jerking his head convulsively until his long hair fairly snaps, he begins a frantic71 dance about the tent, and finally sinks apparently exhausted72 into his seat. In a few moments he delivers to the awe-stricken natives the message which he has received from the evil spirits, and which consists generally of an order to sacrifice to them a certain number of dogs or reindeer, or perhaps a man.
In these wild incantations the priests sometimes practise all sorts of frauds upon their credulous73 followers, by pretending to swallow live coals and to pierce their bodies with knives; but, in a majority of instances, the shaman seems actually to believe that he is under the control and guidance of diabolical intelligence. The natives themselves, however, seem to doubt occasionally the priest's pretended inspiration, and whip him severely74 to test the sincerity of his professions and the genuineness of his revelations. If his fortitude75 sustains him under the infliction76 without any exhibition of human weakness or suffering, his authority as a minister of the evil spirits is vindicated77, and his commands obeyed. Aside from the sacrifices which are ordered by the shamans, the Koraks offer general oblations at least twice a year, to assure a good catch of fish and seal and a prosperous season. We frequently saw twenty or thirty dogs suspended by the necks on long poles over a single encampment. Quantities of green grass are collected during the, summer and twisted into wreaths, to be hung around the necks of the slaughtered animals; and offerings of tobacco are always thrown to the evil spirits when the Koraks cross the summit of a mountain. The bodies of the dead, among all the wandering tribes, are burned, together with all their effects, in the hope of a final resurrection of both spirit and matter; and the sick, as soon as their recovery becomes hopeless, are either stoned to death or speared. We found it to be true, as we had been told by the Russians and the Kamchadals, that the Koraks murdered all their old people as soon as sickness or the infirmities of age unfitted them for the hardships of a nomadic78 life. Long experience has given them a terrible familiarity with the best and quickest methods of taking life; and they often explained to us with the most sickening minuteness, as we sat at night in their smoky pologs, the different ways in which a man could be killed, and pointed79 out the vital parts of the body where a spear or knife thrust would prove most instantly fatal. I thought of De Quincey's celebrated80 Essay upon "Murder Considered as One of the Fine Arts," and of the field which a Korak encampment would afford to his "Society of Connoisseurs81 in Murder." All Koraks are taught to look upon such a death as the natural end of their existence, and they meet it generally with perfect composure. Instances are rare where a man desires to outlive the period of his physical activity and usefulness. They are put to death in the presence of the whole band, with elaborate but unintelligible82 ceremonies; their bodies are then burned, and the ashes suffered to be scattered83 and blown away by the wind.
These customs of murdering the old and sick, and burning the bodies of the dead, grow naturally out of the wandering life which the Koraks have adopted, and are only illustrations of the powerful influence which physical laws exert everywhere upon the actions and moral feelings of men. They both follow logically and almost inevitably from the very nature of the country and climate. The barrenness of the soil in north-eastern Siberia, and the severity of the long winter, led man to domesticate85 the reindeer as the only means of obtaining a subsistence; the domestication86 of the reindeer necessitated87 a wandering life; a wandering life made sickness and infirmity unusually burdensome to both sufferers and supporters; and this finally led to the murder of the old and sick, as a measure both of policy and mercy. The same causes gave rise to the custom of burning the dead. Their nomadic life made it impossible for them to have any one place of common sepulture, and only with the greatest difficulty could they dig graves at all in the perpetually frozen ground. Bodies could not be left to be torn by wolves, and burning them was the only practicable alternative. Neither of these customs presupposes any original and innate88 savageness89 or barbarity on the part of the Koraks themselves. They are the natural development of certain circumstances, and only prove that the strongest emotions of human nature, such as filial reverence90, fraternal affection, selfish love of life, and respect for the remains91 of friends, all are powerless to oppose the operation of great natural laws. The Russian Church is endeavouring by missionary92 enterprise to convert all the Siberian tribes to Christianity; and although they have met with a certain degree of apparent success among the settled tribes of Yukagirs (yoo-kag'-eers), Chuances (choo-an'-ces), and Kamchadals, the wandering natives still cling to Shamanism, and there are more than 70,000 followers of that religion in the scanty93 population of north-eastern Siberia. Any permanent and genuine conversion94 of the Wandering Koraks and Chukchis must be preceded by some educational enlightenment and an entire change in their mode of life.
Among the many superstitions of the Wandering Koraks and Chukchis, one of the most noticeable is their reluctance95 to part with a living reindeer. You may purchase as many dead deer as you choose, up to five hundred, for about seventy cents apiece; but a living deer they will not give to you for love nor money. You may offer them what they consider a fortune in tobacco, copper96 kettles, beads97, and scarlet98 cloth, for a single live reindeer, but they will persistently99 refuse to sell him; yet, if you will allow them to kill the very same animal, you can have his carcass for one small string of common glass beads. It is useless to argue with them about this absurd superstition. You can get no reason for it or explanation of it, except that "to sell a live reindeer would be atkin [bad]." As it was very necessary in the construction of our proposed telegraph line to have trained reindeer of our own, we offered every conceivable inducement to the Koraks to part with one single deer; but all our efforts were in vain. They could sell us a hundred dead deer for a hundred pounds of tobacco; but five hundred pounds would not tempt51 them to part with a single animal as long as the breath of life was in his body. During the two years and a half which we spent in Siberia, no one of our parties, so far as I know, ever succeeded in buying from the Koraks or Chukchis a single living reindeer. All the deer which we eventually owned—some eight hundred—we obtained from the Wandering Tunguses. [Footnote: This feeling or superstition eventually disappeared or was overcome. Many years later, living reindeer were bought in north-eastern Siberia for transportation to Alaska.]
The Koraks are probably the wealthiest deer-owners in Siberia, and consequently in the world. Many of the herds101 which we saw in northern Kamchatka numbered from eight to twelve thousand; and we were told that a certain rich Korak, who lived in the middle of the great tundra102, had three immense herds in different places, numbering in the aggregate103 thirty thousand head. The care of these great herds is almost the only occupation of the Koraks' lives. They are obliged to travel constantly from place to place to find them food, and to watch them night and day to protect them from wolves. Every day eight or ten Koraks, armed with spears and knives, leave the encampment just before dark, walk a mile or two to the place where the deer happen to be pastured, build themselves little huts of trailing pine branches, about three feet in height and two in diameter, and squat104 in them throughout the long, cold hours of an arctic night, watching for wolves. The worse the weather is, the greater the necessity for vigilance. Sometimes, in the middle of a dark winter's night, when a terrible north-easterly storm is howling across the steppe in clouds of flying snow, a band of wolves will make a fierce, sudden attack upon a herd100 of deer, and scatter84 it to the four winds. This it is the business of the Korak sentinels to prevent. Alone and almost unsheltered on a great ocean of snow, each man squats105 down in his frail106 beehive of a hut, and spends the long winter nights in watching the magnificent auroras, which seem to fill the blue vault107 of heaven with blood and dye the earth in crimson108, listening to the pulsating109 of the blood in his ears and the faint distant howls of his enemies the wolves. Patiently he endures cold which freezes mercury and storms which sweep away his frail shelter like chaff110 in a mist of flying snow. Nothing discourages him; nothing frightens him into seeking the shelter of the tents. I have seen him watching deer at night, with nose and cheeks frozen so that they had turned black; and have come upon him early cold winter mornings, squatting111 under three or four bushes, with his face buried in his fur coat, as if he were dead. I could never pass one of those little bush huts on a great desolate tundra without thinking of the man who had once squatted112 in it alone, and trying to imagine what had been his thoughts while watching through long dreary113 nights for the first faint flush of dawn. Had he never wondered, as the fiery114 arms of the aurora24 waved over his head, what caused these mysterious streamers? Had the solemn far-away stars which circled ceaselessly above the snowy plain never suggested to him the possibility of other brighter, happier worlds than this? Had not some
"—revealings faint and far,
Stealing down from moon and star,
Kindled115 in that human clod
Thought of Destiny and God?"
Alas14 for poor unaided human nature! Supernatural influences he could and did feel; but the drum and wild shrieks116 of the shamán showed how utterly117 he failed to understand their nature and teachings.
The natural disposition118 of the Wandering Koraks is thoroughly119 good. They treat their women and children with great kindness; and during all my intercourse with them, extending over two years, I never saw a woman or a child struck. Their honesty is remarkable120. Frequently they would harness up a team of reindeer after we had left their tents in the morning, and overtake us at a distance of five or ten miles, with a knife, a pipe, or some such trifle which we had overlooked and forgotten in the hurry of departure. Our sledges121, loaded with tobacco, beads, and trading goods of all kinds, were left unguarded outside their tents; but never, so far as we knew, was a single article stolen. We were treated by many bands with as much kindness and generous hospitality as I ever experienced in a civilised country and among Christian people; and if I had no money or friends, I would appeal to a band of Wandering Koraks for help with much more confidence than I should ask the same favour of many an American family. Cruel and barbarous they may be, according to our ideas of cruelty and barbarity; but they have never been known to commit an act of treachery, and I would trust my life as unreservedly in their hands as I would in the hands of any other uncivilised people whom I have ever known.
Night after night, as we journeyed northward122, the polar star approached nearer and nearer to the zenith, until finally, at the sixty-second parallel of latitude123, we caught sight of the white peaks of the Stanavoi Mountains, at the head of Penzhinsk Gulf, which marked the northern boundary of Kamchatka. Under the shelter of their snowy slopes we camped for the last time in the smoky tents of the Kamchatkan Koraks, ate for the last time from their wooden troughs, and bade good-by with little regret to the desolate steppes of the peninsula and to tent life with its wandering people.
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1
reindeer
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| n.驯鹿 | |
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superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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Portuguese
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| n.葡萄牙人；葡萄牙语 | |
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conversing
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| v.交谈，谈话( converse的现在分词 ) | |
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afterward
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| adv.后来；以后 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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recess
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| n.短期休息，壁凹（墙上装架子，柜子等凹处） | |
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corrupted
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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Buddhism
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| n.佛教（教义） | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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embodied
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| v.表现( embody的过去式和过去分词 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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manifestations
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| n.表示，显示（manifestation的复数形式） | |
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epidemic
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| n.流行病；盛行；adj.流行性的，流传极广的 | |
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contagious
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| adj.传染性的，有感染力的 | |
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aurora
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| n.极光 | |
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unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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imposture
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| n.冒名顶替，欺骗 | |
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superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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impartiality
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| n. 公平, 无私, 不偏 | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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gratitude
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| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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infraction
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| n.违反；违法 | |
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sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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derives
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| v.得到( derive的第三人称单数 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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diabolical
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| adj.恶魔似的，凶暴的 | |
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chasms
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| 裂缝( chasm的名词复数 )； 裂口； 分歧； 差别 | |
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gorge
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| n.咽喉，胃，暴食，山峡；v.塞饱，狼吞虎咽地吃 | |
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pestilence
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| n.瘟疫 | |
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slaughtered
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| v.屠杀，杀戮，屠宰( slaughter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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portentous
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| adj.不祥的，可怕的，装腔作势的 | |
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cowers
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| v.畏缩，抖缩( cower的第三人称单数 ) | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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propitiate
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| v.慰解，劝解 | |
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calamity
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| n.灾害，祸患，不幸事件 | |
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51
tempt
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| vt.引诱，勾引，吸引，引起…的兴趣 | |
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52
intelligible
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| adj.可理解的，明白易懂的，清楚的 | |
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53
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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54
pestilences
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| n.瘟疫， （尤指）腺鼠疫( pestilence的名词复数 ) | |
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55
inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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56
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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57
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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58
counteract
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| vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消 | |
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59
irresistible
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| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
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60
infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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61
providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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62
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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63
wrath
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| n.愤怒，愤慨，暴怒 | |
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64
vividly
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| adv.清楚地，鲜明地，生动地 | |
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65
appeasing
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| 安抚，抚慰( appease的现在分词 )； 绥靖（满足另一国的要求以避免战争） | |
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66
hieroglyphic
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| n.象形文字 | |
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67
emblems
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| n.象征，标记( emblem的名词复数 ) | |
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68
subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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69
spasms
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| n.痉挛( spasm的名词复数 )；抽搐；（能量、行为等的）突发；发作 | |
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70
vehemence
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| n.热切；激烈；愤怒 | |
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71
frantic
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| adj.狂乱的，错乱的，激昂的 | |
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72
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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73
credulous
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| adj.轻信的，易信的 | |
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severely
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| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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75
fortitude
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| n.坚忍不拔；刚毅 | |
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76
infliction
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| n.（强加于人身的）痛苦，刑罚 | |
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vindicated
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| v.澄清（某人/某事物）受到的责难或嫌疑( vindicate的过去式和过去分词 )；表明或证明（所争辩的事物）属实、正当、有效等；维护 | |
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nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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81
connoisseurs
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| n.鉴赏家，鉴定家，行家( connoisseur的名词复数 ) | |
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82
unintelligible
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| adj.无法了解的，难解的，莫明其妙的 | |
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83
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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84
scatter
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| vt.撒，驱散，散开；散布/播；vi.分散，消散 | |
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85
domesticate
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| vt.驯养；使归化，使专注于家务 | |
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86
domestication
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| n.驯养，驯化 | |
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87
necessitated
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| 使…成为必要，需要( necessitate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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88
innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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savageness
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| 天然，野蛮 | |
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90
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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91
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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92
missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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93
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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94
conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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95
reluctance
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| n.厌恶，讨厌，勉强，不情愿 | |
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96
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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97
beads
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| n.（空心）小珠子( bead的名词复数 )；水珠；珠子项链 | |
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98
scarlet
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| n.深红色，绯红色，红衣；adj.绯红色的 | |
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99
persistently
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| ad.坚持地；固执地 | |
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100
herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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101
herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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102
tundra
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| n.苔原，冻土地带 | |
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103
aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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104
squat
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| v.蹲坐，蹲下；n.蹲下；adj.矮胖的，粗矮的 | |
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105
squats
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| n.蹲坐，蹲姿( squat的名词复数 )；被擅自占用的建筑物v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的第三人称单数 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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106
frail
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| adj.身体虚弱的；易损坏的 | |
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107
vault
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| n.拱形圆顶，地窖，地下室 | |
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108
crimson
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| n./adj.深(绯)红色(的)；vi.脸变绯红色 | |
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109
pulsating
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| adj.搏动的，脉冲的v.有节奏地舒张及收缩( pulsate的现在分词 )；跳动；脉动；受（激情）震动 | |
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110
chaff
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| v.取笑，嘲笑；n.谷壳 | |
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111
squatting
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| v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的现在分词 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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112
squatted
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| v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的过去式和过去分词 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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113
dreary
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| adj.令人沮丧的，沉闷的，单调乏味的 | |
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114
fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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115
kindled
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| （使某物）燃烧，着火( kindle的过去式和过去分词 )； 激起（感情等）； 发亮，放光 | |
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116
shrieks
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| n.尖叫声( shriek的名词复数 )v.尖叫( shriek的第三人称单数 ) | |
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117
utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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118
disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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119
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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120
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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121
sledges
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| n.雪橇，雪车( sledge的名词复数 )v.乘雪橇( sledge的第三人称单数 )；用雪橇运载 | |
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122
northward
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| adv.向北；n.北方的地区 | |
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123
latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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