During the administration of Sir Robert Walpole, the English colonies in America, and the East India Company's settlements began to attract the attention of ministers, and became of considerable political importance. Commercial Enterprise. It is, therefore, time to consider the history of colonization, both in the East and West, and not only by the English, but by the Spaniards, the Portuguese4, the Dutch, and the French.
The first settlements in the new world by Europeans, and their conquests in the unknown regions of the old, were made chiefly in view of commercial advantages. The love of money, that root of all evil, was overruled by Providence5 in the discovery of new worlds, and the diffusion6 of European civilization in countries inhabited by savages7, or worn-out Oriental races. But the mere9 ignoble10 love of gain was not the only motive11 which incited12 the Europeans to navigate13 unknown oceans and colonize14 new continents. There was also another, and this was the spirit of enterprise, which magically aroused the European mind in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Marco Polo, when he visited the East; the Portuguese, when they doubled the Cape15 of Good Hope; Columbus, when he discovered America; and Magellan, when he entered the South Sea, were moved by curiosity and love of science, more than by love of gold. But the vast wealth, which the newly-discovered countries revealed, stimulated16, in the breasts of the excited Europeans, the powerful passions of ambition and avarice17; and the needy18 and grasping governments of Spain, Portugal, Holland, France, and England patronized adventurers to the new El Dorado, and furnished them with ships and stores, in the hope of receiving a share of the profits of their expedition. And they were not disappointed. Although many disasters happened to the early navigators, still country after country was added to the possessions of European kings, and vast sums of gold and silver were melted into European coin. No conquests were ever more sudden, and brilliant than those of Cortez and Pizarro, nor did wealth ever before so suddenly enrich the civilized19 world. But sudden and unlawful gains produced their natural fruit. All the worst evils which flow from extravagance, extortion, and pride prevailed in the old world and the new; and those advantages and possessions, which had been gained by enterprise, were turned into a curse, for no wealth can balance the vices20 of avarice, injustice21, and cruelty.
The most important of all the early settlements of America were made by the Spanish Conquests and Settlements. Spaniards. Their conquests were the most brilliant, and proved the most worthless. The spirit which led to their conquests and colonization was essentially22 that of avarice and ambition. It must, however, be admitted that religious zeal23, in some instances, was the animating24 principle of the adventurers and of those that patronized them.
The first colony was established in Hispaniola, or, as it was afterwards called, St. Domingo, a short time after the discovery of America by Columbus. The mines of the island were, at that period, very productive, and the aggressive Spaniards soon compelled the unhappy natives to labor25 in them, under their governor, Juan Ponce de Leon. But Hispaniola was not sufficiently26 large or productive to satisfy the cupidity27 of the governor, and Porto Rico was conquered and enslaved. Cuba also, in a few years, was added to the dominions29 of Spain.
At length, the Spaniards, who had explored the coasts of the Main land, prepared to invade and conquer the populous30 territories of Montezuma, Emperor of Mexico. The people whom he governed had attained31 a considerable degree of civilization, having a regular government, a system of laws, and an established priesthood. They were not ignorant of the means of recording32 great events, and possessed33 considerable skill in many useful and ornamental34 arts. They were rich in gold and silver, and their cities were ornamented35 with palaces and gardens. But their riches were irresistible36 objects of desire to the European adventurers, and, therefore, proved their misfortune. The story of their conquest by Fernando Cortez need not here be told; familiarized as are all readers and students with the exquisite37 and artistic38 narrative39 of the great American historian, whose work and whose fame can only perish with the language itself.
About ten years after the conquest of Mexico, Pizarro landed in Peru, which country was soon added to the dominions of Philip II. And the government of that country was even more oppressive and unjust than that of Mexico. All Indians between the ages of fifteen and fifty were compelled to work in the mines; and so dreadful was the forced labor, that four out of five of those who worked in them were supposed to perish annually40. There was no limit to Spanish rapacity41 and cruelty, and it was exercised over all the other countries which were subdued42—Chili, Florida, and the West India Islands.
Enormous and unparalleled quantities of the precious metals were sent to Spain from the countries of the new world. But, from the first discovery of Peru and Mexico, the mother country declined in wealth and political importance. With the increase of gold, the price of labor and of provision, and of all articles of manufacturing industry, also increased, and nearly in the same ratio. The Spaniards were insensible to this truth, and, instead of cultivating the soil or engaging in manufactures, were contented43 with the gold which came from the colonies. This, for a while, enriched them; but it was soon scattered44 over all Christendom, and was exchanged for the necessities of life. Industry and art declined, and those countries alone were the gainers which produced those articles which Spain was obliged to purchase.
Portugal soon rivalled Spain in the extent and richness of colonial possessions. Portuguese Discoveries. Brazil was discovered in 1501, and, in about half a century after, was colonized45. The native Brazilians, inferior in civilization to the Mexicans and Peruvians, were still less able than they to resist the arms of the Europeans. They were gradually subdued, and their beautiful and fertile country came into possession of the victors. But the Portuguese also extended their empire in the East, as well as in the West. After the discovery of a passage round the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco de Gama, the early navigators sought simply to be enriched by commerce with the Indies. They found powerful rivals in the Arabs, who had heretofore monopolized46 the trade. In order to secure their commerce, and also to protect themselves against their rivals and enemies, the Portuguese, under the guidance of Albuquerque, procured47 a grant of land in India, from one of the native princes. Soon after, Goa was reduced, and became the seat of government; and territorial48 acquisition commenced, which, having been continued nearly three centuries by the various European powers, is still progressive. In about sixty years, the Portuguese had established a great empire in the East, which included the coasts and islands of the Persian Gulf49, the whole Malabar and Coromandel coasts, the city of Malacca, and numerous islands of the Indian Ocean. They had effected a settlement in China, obtained a free trade with the empire of Japan, and received tribute from the rich Islands of Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra.
The same moral effects happened to Portugal, from the possession of the Indies, that the conquests of Cortez and Pizarro produced on Spain. Goa was the most depraved spot in the world: and the vices which wealth engendered50, wherever the Europeans formed a settlement, can now scarcely be believed. When Portugal fell under the dominion28 of Philip II., the ruin of her Portuguese Settlements. settlements commenced. They were supplanted51 by the Dutch, who were more moral, more united and enterprising, though they provoked, by their arrogance52 and injustice, the hostility53 of the Eastern princes.
The conquests and settlements of the Dutch rapidly succeeded those of the Portuguese. In 1595, Cornelius Houtman sailed, with a well-provided fleet, for the land of gems54 and spices. A company was soon incorporated, in Holland, for managing the Indian trade. Settlements were first made in the Moluccas Islands, which soon extended to the possession of the Island of Java, and to the complete monopoly of the spice trade. The Dutch then gained possession of the Island of Ceylon, which they retained until it was wrested55 from them by the English. But their empire was only maintained at a vast expense of blood and treasure; nor were they any exception to the other European colonists56 and adventurers, in the indulgence of all those vices which degrade our nature.
Neither the French nor the English made any important conquests in the East, when compared with those of the Portuguese and Dutch. Nor did their acquisitions in America equal those of the Spaniards. But they were more important in their ultimate results.
English enterprise was manifested shortly Early English Enterprise. after the first voyage of Columbus. Henry VII. was sufficiently enlightened, envious57, and avaricious58, to listen to the proposals of a Venetian, resident in Bristol, by the name of Cabot; and, in 1495, he commissioned him to sail under the banner of England, to take possession of any new countries he might discover. Accordingly, in about two years after, Cabot, with his second son, Sebastian, embarked59 at Bristol, in one of the king's ships, attended by four smaller vessels61, equipped by the merchants of that enterprising city.
Impressed with the idea of Columbus, and other early navigators, that the West India Islands were not far from the Indian continent, he concluded that, if he steered62 in a more northerly direction, he should reach India by a shorter course than that pursued by the great discoverer. Accordingly, sailing in that course, he discovered Newfoundland and Prince Edwards', and, soon after, the coast of North America, along which he sailed, from Labrador to Virginia. But, disappointed in not finding a westerly passage to India, he returned to England, without attempting, either by settlement or conquest, to gain a footing on the great continent which the English were the second to visit, of all the European nations.
England was prevented, by various circumstances, from deriving63 immediate64 advantage from the discovery. The unsettled state of the country; the distractions65 arising from the civil wars, and afterwards from the Reformation; the poverty of the people, and the sordid66 nature of the king,—were unfavorable to settlements which promised no immediate advantage; and it was not until the reign67 of Elizabeth that any deliberate plans were made for the colonization of North America. The voyages of Frobisher and Drake had aroused a spirit of adventure, if they had not gratified the thirst for gold.
Among those who felt an intense interest in the new world, was Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a man of enlarged views and intrepid69 boldness. He secured from Elizabeth (1578) a liberal patent, and sailed, with a considerable body of adventurers, for the new world. But he took a too northerly direction, and his largest vessel60 was shipwrecked on the coast of Cape Breton. The enterprise from various causes, completely failed, and the intrepid navigator lost his life.
The spirit of the times raised up, however, a greater genius, and a more accomplished70 adventurer, and no less a personage than Sir Walter Raleigh. Sir Walter Raleigh,—the favorite of the queen; one of the greatest scholars and the most elegant courtier of the age; a soldier, a philosopher, and a statesman. He obtained a patent, substantially the same as that which had been bestowed72 on Gilbert. In 1584, Raleigh despatched two small exploring vessels, under the command of Amidas and Barlow, which seasonably arrived off the coast of North Carolina. From the favorable report of the country and the people, a larger fleet, of seven ships, was despatched to America, commanded by Sir Richard Grenville. But he was diverted from his course by the prevailing73 passion for predatory enterprise, and hence only landed one hundred and eight men at Roanoke, (1585.) The government of this feeble band was intrusted to Captain Lane. But the passion for gold led to a misunderstanding with the natives. The colony became enfeebled and reduced, and the adventurers returned to England, (1586,) bringing with them some knowledge of the country, and also that singular weed, which rapidly enslaved the courtiers of Queen Elizabeth, and which soon became one of the great staple75 commodities in the trade of the civilized world. Modern science has proved it to be a poison, and modern philanthropy has lifted up its warning voice against the use of it. But when have men, in their degeneracy, been governed by their reason? What logic76 can break the power of habit, or counteract77 the seductive influences of those excitements which fill the mind with visionary hopes, and lull78 a tumultuous spirit into the repose79 of pleasant dreams and oblivious80 joys? Sir Walter Raleigh, to his shame or his misfortune, was among the first to patronize a custom which has proved more injurious to civilized nations than even the use of opium81 itself, because it is more universal and more insidious82.
But smoking was simply an amusement with him. He soon turned his thoughts to the re?stablishment of his colony. Even before the return of the company under Lane, Sir Richard Grenville had visited the Roanoke, with the necessary stores. But he arrived too late; the colony was abandoned.
But nothing could abate83 the zeal of the most enterprising genius of the age. In 1587, he despatched three more ships, under the command of Captain White, who founded the city of Raleigh. But no better success attended the new band of colonists. White sailed for England, to secure new supplies; and, when he returned, he found no traces of the colony he had planted; and no subsequent ingenuity84 or labor has been able to discover the slightest vestige85.
The patience of Raleigh was not wasted; but new objects occupied his mind, and he parted with his patent, which made him the proprietary86 of a great part of the Southern States. Nor were there any new attempts at colonization until 1606, in the reign of James.
Through the influence of Sir Ferdinand Gorges87, a man of great wealth; Sir John Popham, lord chief justice of England; Richard Hakluyt, the historian; Bartholomew Gosnold, the navigator, and John Smith, the enthusiastic adventurer,—King James I. granted a royal charter to two rival companies, for the colonization of America. The London Company Incorporated. first was composed of noblemen, gentlemen, and merchants, in and about London, who had an exclusive right to occupy regions from thirty-four to thirty-eight degrees of north latitude88. The other company, composed of gentlemen and merchants in the west of England, had assigned to them the territory between forty-one and forty-five degrees. But only the first company succeeded.
The territory, appropriated to the London or southern colony, preserved the name which had been bestowed upon it during the reign of Elizabeth,—Virginia. The colonists were authorized89 to transport, free of the custom-house, for the term of seven years, what arms and provisions they required; and their children were permitted to enjoy the same privileges and liberties, in the American settlements, that Englishmen had at home. They had the right to search for mines, to coin money, and, for twenty-one years, to impose duties, on vessels trading to their harbors, for the benefit of the colony. But, after this period, the duty was to be taken for the king, who also preserved a control over both the councils established for the government of the colony,—the one in England itself, and the other in Virginia; a control inconsistent with those liberties which the colonists subsequently asserted and secured.
The London Company promptly90 applied91 themselves to the settlement of their territories; and, on the 19th of December, 1606, a squadron of three small vessels set sail for the new world; and, on May 13, 1607, a company of one hundred and five men, without families, disembarked at Hardships of the Virginia Colony. Jamestown. This was the first permanent settlement in America by the English. But great misfortunes afflicted92 them. Before September, one half of the colonists had perished, and the other half were suffering from famine, dissension, and fear. The president, Wingfield, attempted to embezzle93 the public stores, and escape to the West Indies. He was supplanted in his command by Ratcliffe, a man without capacity. But a deliverer was raised up in the person of Captain John Smith, who extricated94 the suffering and discontented band from the evils which impended95. He had been a traveller and a warrior96; had visited France, Italy, and Egypt; fought in Holland and Hungary; was taken a prisoner of war in Wallachia, and sent as a slave to Constantinople. Removed to a fortress97 in the Crimea, and subjected to the hardest tasks, he yet contrived98 to escape, and, after many perils99, reached his native country. But greater hardships and dangers awaited him in the new world, to which he was impelled100 by his adventurous101 curiosity. He was surprised and taken by a party of hostile Indians, when on a tour of exploration, and would have been murdered, had it not been for his remarkable102 presence of mind and singular sagacity, united with the intercession of the famous Pocahontas, daughter of a great Indian chief, from whom some of the best families in Virginia are descended103. It would be pleasant to detail the romantic incidents of this brief captivity104; but our limits forbid. Smith, when he returned to Jamestown, found his company reduced to forty men, and they were discouraged and disheartened. Moreover, they were a different class of men from those who colonized New England. They were gentlemen adventurers connected with aristocratic families, were greedy for gold, and had neither the fortitude105 nor the habits requisite106 for success. They were not accustomed to labor, at least with the axe107 and plough. Smith earnestly wrote to the council of the company in England, to send carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, and blacksmiths, instead of "vagabond gentlemen and goldsmiths." But he had to organize a colony with such materials as avarice or adventurous curiosity had sent to America. And, in spite of dissensions and natural indolence, he succeeded in placing it on a firm foundation; surveyed the Chesapeake Bay to the Susquehannah, and explored the inlets of the majestic108 Potomac. But he was not permitted to complete the work which he had so beneficently begun. His administration was unacceptable to the company in England, who cared very little for the welfare of the infant colony, and only sought a profitable investment of their capital. They were disappointed that mines of gold and silver had not been discovered, and that they themselves had not become enriched. Even the substantial welfare of the colony displeased109 them; for this diverted attention from the pursuit of mineral wealth.
The original patentees, therefore, sought to strengthen themselves by new associates and a New Charter of the London Company. new charter. And a new charter was accordingly granted to twenty-one peers, ninety-eight knights110, and a great number of doctors, esquires, gentlemen, and merchants. The bounds of the colony were enlarged, the council and offices in Virginia abolished, and the company in England empowered to nominate all officers in the colony. Lord Delaware was appointed governor and captain-general of the company, and a squadron of nine ships, with five hundred emigrants111 were sent to Virginia. But these emigrants consisted, for the most part, of profligate112 young men, whom their aristocratic friends sent away to screen themselves from shame; broken down gentlemen, too lazy to work; and infamous113 dependants114 on powerful families. They threw the whole colony into confusion, and provoked, by their aggression115 and folly116, the animosities of the Indians, whom Smith had appeased117. The settlement at Jamestown was abandoned to famine and confusion, and would have been deserted118 had it not been for the timely arrival of Lord Delaware, with ample supplies and new recruits. His administration was wise and efficient, and he succeeded in restoring order, if he did not secure the wealth which was anticipated.
In 1612, the company obtained a third patent, by which all the islands within three hundred leagues of the Virginia shore were granted to the patentees, and by which a portion of the power heretofore vested in the council was transferred to the whole company. The political rights of the colonists remained the same but they acquired gradually peace and tranquillity119. Tobacco was extensively cultivated, and proved a more fruitful source of wealth than mines of silver or gold.
The jealousy120 of arbitrary power, and impatience121 of liberty among the new settlers, induced the Governor of Virginia, in 1619, to reinstate them in the full possession of the rights of Englishmen; and he accordingly convoked122 a Provincial123 Assembly, the first ever held in America, which consisted of the governor, the council, and a number of burgesses, elected by the eleven existing boroughs124 of the colony. The deliberation and laws of this infant legislature were transmitted to England for approval; and so wise and judicious125 were these, that the company, soon after, approved and ratified68 the platform of what gradually ripened126 into the American representative system.
The guarantee of political rights led to a Rapid Colonization. rapid colonization. "Men were now willing to regard Virginia as their home. They fell to building houses and planting corn." Women were induced to leave the parent country to become the wives of adventurous planters; and, during the space of three years, thirty-five hundred persons, of both sexes, found their way to Virginia. In the year 1620, a Dutch ship, from the coast of Guinea, arrived in James River, and landed twenty negroes for sale; and, as they were found more capable of enduring fatigue127, in a southern climate, than the Europeans, they were continually imported, until a large proportion of the inhabitants of Virginia was composed of slaves. Thus was introduced, at this early period, that lasting128 system of injustice and cruelty which has proved already an immeasurable misfortune to the country, as well as a disgrace to the institutions of republican liberty, but which is lamented129, in many instances, by no class with more sincerity130 than by those who live by the produce of slave labor itself.
The succeeding year, which witnessed the importation of negroes, beheld131 the cultivation132 of tobacco, which before the introduction of cotton, was the great staple of southern produce.
In 1622, the long-suppressed enmity of the Indians broke out in a savage8 attempt to murder the whole colony. A plot had been formed by which all the English settlements were to be attacked on the same day, and at the same hour. The conspiracy133 was betrayed by a friendly Indian, but not in time to prevent a fearful massacre134 of three hundred and forty-seven persons, among whom were some of the wealthiest and most respectable inhabitants. Then followed all the evils of an Indian Warfare135. Indian war, and the settlements were reduced from eighty to eight plantations136; and it was not until after a protracted137 struggle that the colonists regained138 their prosperity.
Scarcely had hostilities140 with the Indians commenced, before dissensions among the company in England led to a quarrel with the king, and a final abrogation141 of their charter. The company was too large and too democratic. The members were dissatisfied that so little gain had been derived142 from the colony; and moreover they made their courts or convocations, when they assembled to discuss colonial matters, the scene of angry political debate. There was a court party and a country party, each inflamed143 with violent political animosities. The country party was the stronger, and soon excited the jealousy of the arbitrary monarch144, who looked upon their meetings "as but a seminary to a seditious parliament." A royal board of commissioners145 were appointed to examine the affairs of the company, who reported unfavorably; and the king therefore ordered the company to surrender its charter. The company refused to obey an arbitrary mandate146; but upon its refusal, the king ordered a writ147 of quo warranto to be issued, and the Court of the King's Bench decided148, of course, in favor of the crown. The company was accordingly dissolved. But the dissolution, though arbitrary, operated beneficially on the colony. Of all cramping149 institutions, a sovereign company of merchants is the most so, since they seek simply commercial gain, without any reference to the political, moral, or social improvement of the people whom they seek to control.
Before King James had completed his scheme for the government of the colony, he died; and Charles I. pursued the same arbitrary policy which his father contemplated150. He instituted a government which combined the unlimited151 prerogative152 of an absolute prince with the narrow and selfish maxims153 of a mercantile corporation. He monopolized the profits of its trade, and empowered the new governor, whom he appointed, to exercise his authority with the most undisguised usurpation154 of those rights which the colonists had heretofore enjoyed. Governor Harvey. Harvey's disposition155 was congenial with the rapacious156 and cruel system which he pursued, and he acted more like the satrap of an Eastern prince than the representative of a constitutional monarch. The colonists remonstrated157 and complained; but their appeals to the mercy and justice of the king were disregarded, and Harvey continued his course of insolence158 and tyranny until that famous parliament was assembled which rebelled against the folly and government of Charles. In 1641, a new and upright governor, Sir William Berkeley, was sent to Virginia, and the old provincial liberties were restored. In the contest between the king and parliament Virginia espoused159 the royal cause. When the parliament had triumphed over the king, Virginia was made to feel the force of republican displeasure, and oppressive restrictions160 were placed upon the trade of the colony, which were the more provoking in view of the indulgence which the New England colonies received from the protector. A revolt ensued, and Sir William Berkeley was forced from his retirement161, and made to assume the government of the rebellious162 province. Cromwell, fortunately for Virginia, but unfortunately for the world, died before the rebellion, could be suppressed; and when Charles II. was restored, Virginia joyfully163 returned to her allegiance. The supremacy165 of the Church of England was established by law, stipends166 were allowed to her ministers, and no clergymen were permitted to exercise their functions but such as held to the supremacy of the Church of England.
But Charles II. was as Arbitrary Policy of Charles II. incapable168 as his father of pursuing a generous and just policy to the colonies; and parliament itself looked upon the colonies as a source of profit to the nation, rather than as a part of the nation. No sooner was Charles seated on the throne, than parliament imposed a duty of five per cent. on all merchandise exported from, or imported into, any of the dominions belonging to the crown; and the famous Navigation Act was passed, which ordained169 that no commodities should be imported into any of the British settlements but in vessels built in England or in her colonies; and that no sugar, tobacco, cotton, wool, indigo170 and some other articles produced in the colonies, should be shipped from them to any other country but England. As a compensation, the colonies were permitted the exclusive cultivation of tobacco. The parliament, soon after, in 1663, passed additional restrictions; and, advancing, step by step, gradually subjected the colonies to a most oppressive dependence171 on the mother country, and even went so far as to regulate the trade of the several colonies with each other. This system of monopoly and exclusion172, of course, produced indignation and disgust, and sowed the seeds of ultimate rebellion. Indian hostilities were added to provincial discontent, and even the horrors of civil war disturbed the prosperity of the colony. An ambitious and unprincipled adventurer, by the name of Bacon, succeeded in fomenting173 dissension, and in successfully resisting the power of the governor. Providence arrested the career of the rebel in the moment of his triumph; and his sickness and death fortunately dissipated the tempest which threatened to be fatal to the peace and welfare of Virginia. Berkeley, on the suppression of the rebellion, punished the offenders174 with a severity which ill accorded with his lenient175 and pacific character. His course did not please the government in England, and he was superseded176 by Colonel Jeffries. But he died before his successor arrived. A succession of governors administered the colony as their disposition prompted, some of whom were wise and able, and others tyrannical and rapacious.
The English revolution of 1688 produced also a change in the administration of the colony. Its dependence on the personal character of the sovereign was abolished, and its chartered liberties were protected. The king continued to appoint the royal governor, and the parliament continued to oppress the trade of the colonists; but they, on the whole, enjoyed the rights of freemen, and rapidly advanced in wealth and prosperity. On the accession of William and Mary, the colony contained fifty thousand inhabitants and forty-eight parishes; and, in 1676, the customs on tobacco alone were collected in England to the amount of one hundred and thirty-five thousand pounds. The people generally belonged to the Episcopal Church, and the clergy167 each received, in every parish, a house and glebe, together with sixteen thousand pounds of tobacco. The people were characterized for hospitality and urbanity, but were reproached for the indolence which a residence in scattered villages, a hot climate, and negro slavery must almost inevitably177 lead to. Literature, that solace178 of the refined and luxurious179 in the European world, was but imperfectly cultivated; nor was religion, in its stern and lofty developments, the animating principle of life, as in the New England settlements. But the people of Virginia were richer, more cultivated, and more aristocratic than the Puritans, more refined in manners, and more pleasing as companions.
The Settlement of New England. settlements in New England were made by a very different class of men from those who colonized Virginia. They were not adventurers in quest of gain; they were not broken-down gentlemen of aristocratic connections; they were not the profligate and dissolute members of powerful families. They were Puritans, they belonged to the middle ranks of society; they were men of stern and lofty virtue180, of invincible181 energy, and hard and iron wills; they detested182 both the civil and religious despotism of their times, and desired, above all worldly consideration, the liberty of worshipping God according to the dictates183 of their consciences. They were chiefly Independents and Calvinists, among whom religion was a life, and not a dogma. They sought savage wilds, not for gain, not for ease, not for aggrandizement184, but for liberty of conscience; and, for the sake of that inestimable privilege, they were ready to forego all the comforts and elegances185 of civilized life, and cheerfully meet all the dangers and make all the sacrifices which a residence among savage Indians, and in a cold and inhospitable climate, necessarily incurred186.
The efforts at colonization attempted by the company in the west of England, to which allusion187 has been made, signally failed. God did not design that New England should be settled by a band of commercial adventurers. A colony was permanently188 planted at Plymouth, within the limits of the corporation, of forty persons, to whom James had granted enormous powers, and a belt of country from the fortieth to the forty-eighth degree of north latitude in width, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific in length.
On the 5th of August, 1620, the Mayflower and the Speedwell, freighted with the first Puritan colony, set sail from Southampton. It composed a band of religious and devoted189 men, with their wives and children, who had previously190 sought shelter in Holland for the enjoyment191 of their religious opinions. The smaller vessel, after a trial on the Atlantic, was found incompetent192 to the voyage, and was abandoned. The more timid were allowed to disembark at old Plymouth. One hundred and one resolute193 souls again set sail in the Mayflower, for the unknown wilderness194, with all its countless195 dangers and miseries196. No common worldly interest could have sustained their souls. The first adventurers embarked for Virginia, without women or children; but the Puritans made preparation for a permanent residence. Providence, against their design, guided their little vessel to the desolate197 shores of the most barren part of Massachusetts. On the 9th of November, it was Arrival of the Mayflower. safely moored198 in the harbor of Cape Cod199. On the 11th, the colonists solemnly bound themselves into a body politic3, and chose John Carver for their governor. On the 11th of December, (O. S.,) after protracted perils and sufferings, this little company landed on Plymouth Rock. Before the opening spring, more than half the colony had perished from privation, fatigue, and suffering, among whom was the governor himself. In the autumn, their numbers were recruited; but all the miseries of famine remained. They lived together as a community; but, for three or four months together, they had no corn whatever. In the spring of 1623, each family planted for itself, and land was assigned to each person in perpetual fee. The needy and defenceless colonists were fortunately preserved from the hostility of the natives, since a famine had swept away the more dangerous of their savage neighbors; nor did hostilities commence for several years. God protected the Pilgrims, in their weakness, from the murderous tomahawk, and from the perils of the wilderness. They suffered, but they existed. Their numbers slowly increased, but they were all Puritans,—were just the men to colonize the land, and lay the foundation of a great empire. From the beginning, a strict democracy existed, and all enjoyed ample exemption201 from the trammels of arbitrary power. No king took cognizance of their existence, or imposed upon them a despotic governor. They appointed their own rulers, and those rulers governed in the fear of God. Township independence existed from the first; and this is the nursery and the genius of American institutions. The Plymouth colony was a self-constituted democracy; but it was composed of Englishmen, who loved their native land, and, while they sought unrestrained freedom, did not disdain202 dependence on the mother country, and a proper connection with the English government. They could not obtain a royal charter from the king; but the Grand Council of Plymouth—a new company, to which James had given the privileges of the old one—granted all the privileges which the colonists desired. They were too insignificant203 to attract much attention from the government, or excite the jealousy of a great corporation.
Unobtrusive and unfettered, the colony slowly spread. But wherever it spread, it took root. It was a tree which Providence planted for all generations. It was established upon a rock. It was a branch of the true church, which was destined204 to defy storms and changes, because its strength was in the Lord.
But all parts of New England were not, at first, settled by Puritan Pilgrims, or from motives205 of religion merely. The council of Plymouth issued grants of domains206 to various adventurers, who were animated207 by the spirit of gain. John Mason received a patent for what is now the state of Settlement of New Hampshire. New Hampshire. Portsmouth and Dover had an existence as early as 1623. Gorges obtained a grant of the whole district between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec. Saco, in 1636, contained one hundred and fifty people. But the settlements in New Hampshire and Maine, having disappointed the expectations of the patentees in regard to emolument208 and profit, were not very flourishing.
In the mean time, a new company of Puritans was formed for the settlement of the country around Boston. The company obtained a royal charter, (1629,) which constituted them a body politic, by the name of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay. It conferred on the colonists the rights of English subjects, although it did not technically209 concede freedom of religious worship, or the privilege of self-government. The main body of the colonists settled in Salem. They were a band of devout210 and lofty characters; Calvinists in their religious creed211, and republicans in their political opinions. Strict independency was the basis and the genius of their church. It was self-constituted, and all its officers were elected by the members.
The charter of the company had been granted to a corporation consisting chiefly of merchants resident in London, and was more liberal than could have been expected from so bigoted212 and zealous213 a king as Charles I. If it did not directly concede the rights of conscience, it seemed to be silent respecting them; and the colonists were left to the unrestricted enjoyment of their religious and civil liberties. The intolerance and rigor214 of Archbishop Laud215 caused this new colony to be rapidly settled; and, as many distinguished216 men desired to emigrate, they sought and secured, from the company in England, a transfer of all the powers of government to the actual settlers in America. By this singular transaction, the municipal rights and privileges of the colonists were established on a firm foundation.
In 1630, not far from fifteen hundred persons, with Winthrop as their leader and governor, emigrated to the new world, and settled first in Charlestown, and afterwards in Boston. In accordance with the charter which gave them such unexpected privileges, a General Court was assembled, to settle the government. But the privilege of the elective franchise217 was given only to the members of the church, and each church was formed after the model of the one in Salem. It cannot be said that a strict democracy was established, since church membership was the condition of the full enjoyment of political rights. But if the Constitution of the Colony. constitution was somewhat aristocratic and exclusive, aristocracy was not based on wealth or intellect. The Calvinists of Massachusetts recognized a government of the elect,—a sort of theocracy218, in which only the religious, or those who professed219 to be so, and were admitted to be so, had a right to rule. This was the notion of Cromwell himself, the great idol220 and representative of the Independents, who fancied that the government of England should be intrusted only to those who were capable of saving England, and were worthy221 to rule England. As his party constituted, in his eyes, this elect body, and was, in reality, the best party,—composed of men who feared God, and were willing to be ruled by his laws,—therefore his party, as he supposed, had a right to overturn thrones, and establish a new theocracy on earth.
This notion was a delusion222 in England, and proved fatal to all those who were blinded by it. Not so in America. Amid the unbroken forests of New England, a colony of men was planted who generally recognized the principles of Cromwell; and one of the best governments the world has seen controlled the turbulent, rewarded the upright, and protected the rights and property of all classes with almost paternal223 fidelity224 and justice. The colony, however,—such is the weakness of man, such the degeneracy of his nature,—was doomed225 to dissension. Bigotry226, from which no communities or individuals are fully164 free, drove some of the best men from the limits of the colony. Roger Williams, a minister in Salem, and one of the most worthy and enlightened men of his age, sought shelter from the persecution227 of his brethren amid the wilds on Narragansett Bay. In June, 1636, the lawgiver of Rhode Island, with five companions, embarked in an Indian canoe, and, sailing down the river, landed near a spring, on a sheltered spot, which he called Providence. He was gradually joined by others, who sympathized with his tolerant spirit and enlightened views, and the colony of Rhode Island became an asylum228 for the persecuted230 for many years. And there were many such. Doctrines231 of the Puritans. The Puritans were too earnest to live in harmony with those who differed from them on great religious questions; and a difference of views must have been expected among men so intellectual, so acute, and so fearless in speculation233. How could dissenters234 from prevailing opinions fail to arise?—mystics, fanatics235, and heretics? The idea of special divine illumination—ever the prevailing source of fanaticism236, in all ages and countries—led astray some; and the desire for greater spiritual liberty animated others. Anne Hutchinson adopted substantially the doctrine232 of George Fox, that the spirit of God illuminates237 believers, independently of his written word; and she communicated her views to many others, who became, like her, arrogant238 and conceited239, in spite of their many excellent qualities. Harry240 Vane, the governor, was among the number. But there was no reasoning with fanatics, who fancied themselves especially inspired; and, as they disturbed the peace of the colony, the leaders were expelled. Vane himself returned to England, to mingle241 in scenes more congenial with his excellent but excitable temper. In England, this illustrious friend of Milton greatly distinguished himself for his efforts in the cause of liberty, and ever remained its consistent advocate; opposing equally the tyranny of the king, and the encroachments of those who overturned his throne.
Connecticut, though assigned to a company in England, was early colonized by a detachment of Pilgrims from Massachusetts. In 1635, settlements were made at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. The following year, the excellent and illustrious Hooker led a company of one hundred persons through the forests to the delightful242 banks of the Connecticut, whose rich alluvial243 soil promised an easier support than the hard and stony244 land in the vicinity of Boston. They were scarcely settled before the Pequod War. Pequod war commenced, which involved all the colonies in a desperate and bloody245 contest with the Indians. But the Pequods were no match for Europeans, especially without firearms; and, in 1637, the tribe was nearly annihilated246. The energy and severity exercised by the colonists, fighting for their homes, struck awe247 in the minds of the savages; and it was long before they had the courage to rally a second time. The Puritans had the spirit of Cromwell, and never hesitated to act with intrepid boldness and courage, when the necessity was laid upon them. They were no advocates of half measures. Their subsequent security and growth are, in no slight degree, to be traced to these rigorous measures,—measures which, in these times, are sometimes denounced as too severe, but the wisdom of which can scarcely be questioned when the results are considered. All the great masters of war, and of war with barbarians248, have pursued a policy of unmitigated severity; and when a temporizing249 or timid course has been adopted with men incapable of being governed by reason, and animated by savage passions, that course has failed.
After the various colonies were well established in New England, and more than twenty thousand had emigrated from the mother country, they were no longer regarded with benevolent250 interest by the king or his ministers. The Grand Council of Plymouth surrendered its charter to the king, and a writ of quo warranto was issued against the Massachusetts colony. But the Puritans refused to surrender their charter, and prepared for resistance against the malignant251 scheme of Strafford and Laud. Before they could be carried into execution, the struggle between the king and the Long Parliament had commenced. The less resistance was forgotten in the greater. The colonies escaped the vengeance252 of a bigoted government. When the parliament triumphed, they were especially favored, and gradually acquired wealth and power. union of the New England Colonies. The different colonies formed a confederation to protect themselves against the Dutch and French on the one side, and the Indians on the other. And this happily continued for half a century, and was productive of very important results. But the several colonies continued to make laws for their own people, to repress anarchy253, and favor the cause of religion and unity200. They did not always exhibit a liberal and enlightened policy. They destroyed witches; persecuted the Baptists and Quakers, and excluded them from their settlements. But, with the exception of religious persecution, their legislation was wise, and their general conduct was virtuous254. They encouraged schools, and founded the University of Cambridge. They preserved the various peculiarities255 of Puritanism in regard to amusements, to the observance of the Sabbath, and to antipathy257 to any thing which reminded them of Rome, or even of the Church of England. But Puritanism was not an odious258 crust, a form, a dogma. It was a life, a reality; and was not unfavorable to the development of the most beautiful virtues259 of charity and benevolence260, in a certain sphere. It was not a mere traditional Puritanism, which clings with disgusting tenacity261 to a form, when the spirit of love has departed; but it was a harmonious262 development of living virtues, which sympathized with education, with freedom, and with progress; which united men together by the bond of Christian263 love, and incited them to deeds of active benevolence and intrepid moral heroism264. Nor did the Puritan Pilgrims persecute229 those who did not harmonize with them in order to punish them, but simply to protect themselves, and to preserve in their midst, and in their original purity, those institutions and those rights, for the possession of which they left their beloved native land for a savage wilderness, with its countless perils and miseries. But their hardships and afflictions were not of long continuance. With energy, industry, frugality265, and love, they soon obtained security, comfort, and health. And it is no vain and idle imagination which assigns to those years, which succeeded the successful planting of the colony, the period of the greatest happiness and virtue which New England has ever enjoyed.
Equally fortunate with the Puritans were those interesting people who settled Pennsylvania. If the Quakers were persecuted in the mother country and in New England, they found a shelter on the banks of the Delaware. There they obtained and enjoyed that freedom of religious worship which had been denied to the great founder266 of the sect267, and which had even been withheld268 from them by men who had struggled with them for the attainment269 of this exalted270 privilege.
In 1677, the Quakers obtained a charter which recognized the principle of democratic equality in the settlements in West Jersey271; and in 1680, William Penn. William Penn received from the king, who was indebted to his father, a grant of an extensive territory, which was called Pennsylvania, of which he was constituted absolute proprietary. He also received a liberal charter, and gave his people privileges and a code of laws which exceeded in liberality any that had as yet been bestowed on any community. In 1682 he landed at Newcastle, and, soon after, at his new city on the banks of the Delaware, under the shelter of a large, spreading elm, made his immortal272 treaty with the Indians. He proclaimed to the Indian, heretofore deemed a foe273 never to be appeased, the principles of love which animated Fox, and which "Mary Fisher had borne to the Grand Turk." "We meet," said the lawgiver, "on the broad pathway of good faith and good will. No advantage shall be taken on either side, but all shall be openness and love. I will not call you children, for parents sometimes chide274 their children too severely275; nor brothers only, for brothers differ. The friendship between me and you I will not compare to a chain, for that the rains might rust74, or the felling tree might break. We are the same as if one man's body were to be divided into two parts; we are all one flesh and blood."
Such were the sublime276 doctrines which the illustrious founder of Pennsylvania declared to the Indians, and which he made the basis of his government, and the rule of his intercourse277 with his own people and with savage tribes. These doctrines were already instilled278 into the minds of the settlers, and they also found a response in the souls of the Indians. The sons of the wilderness long cherished the recollection of the covenant279, and never forgot its principles. While all the other settlements of the Europeans were suffering from the hostility of the red man, Pennsylvania alone enjoyed repose. "Not a drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian."
William Penn, although the absolute proprietor280 of a tract2 of country which was nearly equal in extent to England, sought no revenue and no arbitrary power. He gave to the settlers the right to choose their own magistrates281, from the highest to the lowest, and only reserved to himself the power to veto the bills of the council—the privilege which our democracies still allow to their governors.
Such a colony as he instituted could not but prosper139. Its rising glories were proclaimed in every country of Europe, and the needy and distressed282 of all countries sought this realized Utopia. In two years after Philadelphia was settled, it contained six hundred houses. Peace was uninterrupted, and the settlement spread more rapidly than in any other part of North America.
New Jersey, Maryland, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, were all colonized by the English, shortly after the settlement of Virginia and New England, either by emigration from England, or from the other colonies. But there was nothing in their early history sufficiently marked to warrant a more extended sketch283. In general, the Southern States were colonized by men who had not the religious elevation284 of the Puritans, nor the living charity of the Quakers. But their characters improved by encountering the evils to which they were subjected, and they became gradually imbued285 with those principles which in after times secured independence and union.
The settlement of Settlement of New York. New York, however, merits a passing notice, since it was colonized by emigrants from Holland, which was by far the most flourishing commercial state of Europe in the seventeenth century. The Hudson River had been discovered (1609) by an Englishman, whose name it bears, but who was in the service of the Dutch East India Company. The right of possession of the country around it was therefore claimed by the United Provinces, and an association of Dutch merchants fitted out a ship to trade with the Indians. In 1614, a rude fort was erected286 on Manhattan Island, and, the next year, the settlement at Albany commenced, chiefly with a view of trading with the Indians. In 1623, New Amsterdam, now New York, was built for the purpose of colonization, and extensive territories were appropriated by the Dutch for the rising colony. This appropriation287 involved them in constant contention288 with the English, as well as with the Indians; nor was there the enjoyment of political privileges by the people, as in the New England colonies. The settlements resembled lordships in the Netherlands, and every one who planted a colony of fifty souls, possessed the absolute property of the lands he colonized, and became Patroon, or Lord of the Manor289. Very little attention was given to education, and the colonists were not permitted to make cotton, woollen, or linen290 cloth, for fear of injury to the monopolists of the Dutch manufactures. The province had no popular freedom, and no public spirit. The poor were numerous, and the people were disinclined to make proper provision for their own protection.
But the colony of the Conquest of New Netherlands. New Netherlands was not destined to remain under the government of the Dutch West India Company. It was conquered by the English in 1664, and the conquerors291 promised security to the customs, the religion, the institutions, and the possessions of the Dutch; and this promise was observed. In 1673, the colony was reconquered, but finally, in 1674, was ceded292 to the English, and the brother of Charles II. resumed his possession and government of New York, and delegated his power to Colonel Nichols, who ruled with wisdom and humanity. But the old Dutch Governor Stuyvesant remained in the city over which he had so honorably presided, and prolonged the empire of Dutch manners, if not of Dutch arms. The banks of the Hudson continued also to be peopled by the countrymen of the original colonists, who long preserved the language, customs, and religion of Holland. New York, nevertheless, was a royal province, and the administration was frequently intrusted to rapacious, unprincipled, and arbitrary governors.
Thus were the various states which border on the Atlantic Ocean colonized, in which English laws, institutions, and language were destined to be perpetuated293. In 1688, the various colonies, of which there were twelve, contained about two hundred thousand inhabitants; and all of these were Protestants; all cherished the principles of civil and religious liberty, and sought, by industry, frugality and patience, to secure independence and prosperity. From that period to this, no nation has grown more rapidly; no one has ever developed more surprising energies; no one has ever enjoyed greater social, political, and religious privileges.
But the shores of North America were not colonized merely by the English. On the banks of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi another body of colonists arrived, and introduced customs and institutions equally foreign to those of the English and Spaniards. The French settlements in Canada and Louisiana are now to be considered.
Within seven years from the discovery of the continent, the fisheries of Newfoundland were known to French adventurers. The Discovery of the St. Lawrence. St. Lawrence was explored in 1506, and plans of colonization were formed in 1518. In 1534, James Cartier, a native of St. Malo, sailed up the River St. Lawrence; but the severity of the climate in winter prevented an immediate settlement. It was not until 1603 that any permanent colonization was commenced. Quebec was then selected by Samuel Champlain, the father of the French settlements in Canada, as the site for a fort. In 1604, a charter was given, by Henry IV., to an eminent294 Calvinist, De Monts, which gave him the sovereignty of Acadia, a tract embraced between the fortieth and forty-sixth degrees of north latitude. The Huguenot emigrants were to enjoy their religion, the monopoly of the fur trade, and the exclusive control of the soil. They arrived at Nova Scotia the same year, and settled in Port Royal.
In 1608, Quebec was settled by Champlain, who aimed at the glory of founding a state; and in 1627 he succeeded in establishing the authority of the French on the banks of the St. Lawrence. But Champlain was also a zealous Catholic, and esteemed295 the salvation296 of a soul more than the conquest of a kingdom. He therefore selected Franciscan monks297 to effect the conversion298 of the Indians. But they were soon supplanted by the Jesuits, who, patronized by the government in France, soon made the new world the scene of their strange activity.
At no period and in no country were Jesuit Missionaries299. Jesuit missionaries more untiring laborers300 than amid the forests of North America. With the crucifix in their hands, they wandered about with savage tribes, and by unparalleled labors301 of charity and benevolence, sought to convert them to the Christianity of Rome. As early as 1635, a college and a hospital were founded, by munificent302 patrons in France, for the benefit of all the tribes of red men from the waters of Lake Superior to the shores of the Kennebec. In 1641 Montreal, intended as a general rendezvous303 for converted Indians was occupied, and soon became the most important station in Canada, next to the fortress of Quebec. Before Eliot had preached to the Indians around Boston, the intrepid missionaries of the Jesuits had explored the shores of Lake Superior, had penetrated304 to the Falls of St. Mary's, and had visited the Chippeways, the Hurons, the Iroquois, and the Mohawks. Soon after, they approached the Dutch settlements on the Hudson, explored the sources of the Mississippi, examined its various tributary305 streams, and floated down its mighty306 waters to its mouth. The missionaries claimed the territories on the Gulf of Mexico for the king of France, and in 1684, Louisiana was colonized by Frenchmen. The indefatigable307 La Salle, after having explored the Mississippi, from the Falls of St. Anthony to the sea, was assassinated308 by one of his envious followers309, but not until he had earned the immortal fame of being the father of western colonization.
Thus were the North American settlements effected. In 1688, England possessed those colonies which border on the Atlantic Ocean, from Maine to Georgia. The French possessed Nova Scotia, Canada, Louisiana, and claimed the countries bordering on the Mississippi and its branches, from the Gulf of Mexico to Lake Superior, and also the territories around the great lakes.
A mutual310 jealousy, as was to be expected, sprung up between France and England respecting their colonial possessions. Both kingdoms aimed at the sovereignty of North America. The French were entitled, perhaps, by right of discovery, to the greater extent of territory; but their colonies were very unequal to those of the English in respect to numbers, and still more so in moral elevation and intellectual culture.
But Louis XIV., then in the height of his power, meditated311 the complete subjection of the English settlements. The French allied312 themselves with the Indians, and savage wars were the result. The Mohawks and other tribes, encouraged by the French, committed fearful massacres313 at Deerfield and Haverhill, and the English settlers were kept in a state of constant alarm and fear. By the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, the colonists obtained peace and considerable accession of territory. In 1720, John Law proposed his celebrated314 financial scheme to the prince regent of France, and the Mississippi Company was chartered, and Louisiana colonized. Much profit was expected to be derived from this company. It will be seen, in another chapter, how miserably315 it failed. It was based on wrong foundations, and the project of deriving wealth from the colonies came to nought316; nor did it result in a rapid colonization.
Meanwhile the English colonies advanced in Prosperity of the English Colonies. wealth, numbers, and political importance, and attracted the notice of the English government. Sir Robert Walpole, in 1711, was solicited317 to tax the colonies; but he nobly rejected the proposal. He encouraged trade to the utmost latitude, and tribute was only levied318 by means of consumption of British manufactures. But restrictions were subsequently imposed on colonial enterprise, which led to collisions between the colonies and the mother country. The Southern colonies were more favored than the Northern, but all of them were regarded with the view of promoting the peculiar256 interests of Great Britain. Other subjects of dispute also arose; but, nevertheless, the colonies, especially those of New England, made rapid strides. There was a general diffusion of knowledge, the laws were well observed, and the ministers of religion were an honor to their sacred calling. The earth was subdued, and replenished319 with a hardy320 and religious set of men. Sentiments of patriotism321 and independence were ardently322 cherished. The people were trained to protect themselves; and, in their town meetings, learned to discuss political questions, and to understand political rights. Some ecclesiastical controversies323 disturbed the peace of parishes and communities, but did not retard324 the general prosperity. Some great lights also appeared. David Brainerd performed labors of disinterestedness325 and enlightened piety326, which have never been surpassed, and never equalled, even in zeal and activity, except by those of the earlier Jesuits. Jonathan Edwards stamped his genius on the whole character of New England theology, and won the highest honor as a metaphysician, even from European admirers. His treatise327 on the Freedom of the Will has secured the praises of philosophers and divines of all sects328 and parties from Hume to Chalmers, and can "never be attentively329 perused330 without a sentiment of admiration331 at the strength and stretch of the human understanding." Benjamin Franklin also had arisen: he had not, at this early epoch332, distinguished himself for philosophical333 discoveries; but he had attracted attention as the editor of a newspaper, in which he fearlessly defended freedom of speech and the great rights of the people. But greater than Franklin, greater than any hero which modern history has commemorated334, was that young Virginia planter, who was then watching, with great solicitude335, the interests and glory of his country, and preparing himself for the great conflicts which have given him immortality336.
The growth of the colonies, and their great importance in the eyes of the Europeans, had now provoked the jealousy of the two leading powers of Europe, and the colonial struggle between England and France began.
The French claimed the French Encroachments. right of erecting337 a chain of fortresses338 along the Ohio and the Mississippi, with a view to connect Canada with Louisiana, and thus obtain a monopoly of the fur trade with the Indians, and secure the possession of the finest part of the American continent. But these designs were displeasing339 to the English colonists, who had already extended their settlements far into the interior. The English ministry340 was also indignant in view of these movements, by which the colonies were completely surrounded by military posts. England protested; but the French artfully protracted negotiations341 until the fortifications were completed.
It was to protest against the erection of these fortresses that George Washington, then twenty-three years of age, was sent by the colony of Virginia to the banks of the Ohio. That journey through the trackless wilderness, attended but by one person, in no slight degree marked him out, and prepared him for his subsequently great career.
While the disputes about the forts were carried on between the cabinets of France and England, the French prosecuted342 their encroachments in America with great boldness, which doubtless hastened the rupture343 between the two countries. Orders were sent to the colonies to drive the French from their usurpations in Nova Scotia, and from their fortified344 posts upon the Ohio. Then commenced that great war, which resulted in the loss of the French possessions in America. But this war was also allied with the contests which grew out of the Austrian Succession, and therefore will be presented in a separate chapter on the Pelham administration, during which the Seven Years' War, in the latter years of the reign of George II., commenced.
But the colonial jealousy between England and France existed not merely in view of the North American colonies, but also those in the European Settlements in the East. East Indies; and these must be alluded345 to in order to form a general idea of European colonization, and of the causes which led to the mercantile importance of Great Britain, as well as to the great wars which desolated346 the various European nations.
From the difficulties in the American colonies, we turn to those, therefore, which existed in the opposite quarter of the globe. Even to those old countries had European armies penetrated; even there European cupidity and enterprise were exercised.
As late as 1742, the territories of the English in India scarcely extended beyond the precincts of the towns in which were located the East India Company's servants. The first English settlement of importance was on the Island of Java; but, in 1658, a grant of land was obtained on the Coromandel coast, near Madras, where was erected the strong fortress of St. George. In 1668, the Island of Bombay was ceded by the crown of Portugal to Charles II., and appointed the capital of the British settlements in India. In 1698, the English had a settlement on the Hooghly, which afterwards became the metropolis347 of British power.
But the Dutch, and Portuguese, and French had also French Settlements in India. colonies in India for purposes of trade. Louis XIV. established a company, in imitation of the English, which sought a settlement on the Hooghly. The French company also had built a fort on the coast of the Carnatic, about eighty miles south of Madras, called Pondicherry, and had colonized two fertile islands in the Indian Ocean, which they called the Isle348 of France and the Isle of Bourbon. The possessions of the French were controlled by two presidencies349, one on the Isle of France, and the other at Pondicherry.
When the war broke out between England and France, in 1744, these two French presidencies were ruled by two men of superior La Bourdonnais and Dupleix. genius,—La Bourdonnais and Dupleix,—both of them men of great experience in Indian affairs, and both devoted to the interests of the company, so far as their own personal ambition would permit. When Commodore Burnet, with an English squadron, was sent into the Indian seas, La Bourdonnais succeeded in fitting out an expedition to oppose it, and even contemplated the capture of Madras. No decisive action was fought at sea; but the French governor succeeded in taking Madras. This success displeased the Nabob of the Carnatic, and he sent a letter to Dupleix, and complained of the aggression of his countrymen in attacking a place under his protection. Dupleix, envious of the fame of La Bourdonnais, and not pleased with the terms of capitulation, as being too favorable to the English, claimed the right of annulling350 the conquest, since Madras, when taken, would fall under his own presidency351.
The contentions352 between these two Frenchmen prevented La Bourdonnais from following up the advantage of his victory, and he failed in his attempts to engage the English fleet, and, in consequence, returned to France, and died from the effects of an unjust imprisonment353 in the Bastile.
Dupleix, after the departure of La Bourdonnais, brought the principal inhabitants of Madras to Pondicherry. But some of them contrived to escape. Among them was the celebrated Clive, then a clerk in a mercantile house. He entered as an ensign into the company's service, and soon found occasion to distinguish himself.
But Dupleix, master of Madras, now formed the scheme of founding an Indian empire, and of expelling the English from the Carnatic. And India was in a state to favor his enterprises. The empire of the Great Mogul, whose capital was Delhi, was tottering354 from decay. It had been, in the sixteenth century, the most powerful empire in the world. The magnificence of his palaces astonished even Europeans accustomed to the splendor355 of Paris and Versailles. His viceroys ruled over provinces larger and richer than either France or England. And even the lieutenants356 of these viceroys frequently aspired357 to independence.
The Nabob of Arcot was one of these latter princes. He hated the French, and befriended the English. On the death of the Viceroy of the Deccan, to whom he was subject, in 1748, Dupleix conceived his gigantic scheme of conquest. To the throne of this viceroy there were several claimants, two of whom applied to the French for assistance. This was what the Frenchman desired, and he allied himself with the pretenders. With the assistance of the French, Mirzappa Juy obtained the viceroyalty. Dupleix was splendidly rewarded, and was intrusted with the command of seven thousand Indian cavalry358, and received a present of two hundred thousand pounds.
The only place on the Carnatic which remained in possession of the rightful viceroy was Trichinopoly, and this was soon invested by the French and Indian forces.
To raise this siege, and turn the tide of French conquest, became the object of Clive, then twenty-five years of age. He represented to his superior the importance of this post, and also of striking a decisive blow. He suggested the plan of an attack on Arcot itself, the residence of the nabob. His project was approved, and he was placed at the head of a force of three hundred sepoys and two hundred Englishmen. The city was taken by surprise, and its capture induced the nabob to relinquish359 the siege of Trichinopoly in order to retake his capital. But Clive so intrenched his followers, that they successfully defended the place after exhibiting prodigies360 of valor361. The fortune of war turned to the side of the gallant362 Englishman, and Dupleix, who was no general, retreated before the victors. Clive obtained the command of Fort St. David, an important fortress near Madras, and soon controlled the Carnatic.
About this time, the settlements on the Hooghly were plundered364 by Suraj-w Dowlah, Viceroy of Bengal. Bengal was the most fertile and populous province of the empire of the Great Mogul. It was watered by the Ganges, the sacred river of India, and its cities were surprisingly rich. Its capital was Moorshedabad, a city nearly as large as London; and here the young viceroy lived in luxury and effeminacy, and indulged in every species of cruelty and folly. He hated the English of Calcutta, and longed to plunder363 them. He accordingly seized the infant city, and shut up one hundred and forty of the colonists in a dungeon365 of the fort, a room twenty feet by fourteen, with only two small windows; and in a few hours, one hundred and seventeen of the English died. The horrors of that night have been splendidly painted by Macaulay in his essay on Clive, and the place of torment366, called the Black Hole of Calcutta, is synonymous with suffering and misery367. Clive resolved to avenge368 this insult to his countrymen. An expedition was fitted out at Madras to punish the inhuman369 nabob, consisting of nine hundred Europeans and fifteen hundred sepoys. It was a small force, but proved sufficient. Calcutta was recovered and the army of the nabob was routed. Clive intrigued370 with the enemies of the despot in his own city; and, by means of unparalleled treachery, dissimulation371, art, and violence, Suraj-w Dowlah was deposed372, and Meer Jaffier, one of the conspirators373, was made nabob in his place. In return for the services of Clive, the new viceroy splendidly rewarded him. A hundred boats conveyed the treasures of Bengal down the river to Calcutta. Clive himself, who had walked between heaps of gold and silver, crowned with diamonds and rubies374, condescended375 to receive a present of three hundred thousand pounds. His moderation has been commended by his biographers in not asking for a million.
The elevation of Meer Jaffier was, of course, displeasing to the imbecile Emperor of India, and a large army was sent to dethrone him. The nabob appealed, in his necessity, to his allies, the English, and, with the powerful assistance of the Europeans, the forces of the successor of the great Aurungzebe were signally routed. But the great sums he was obliged to bestow71 on his allies, and the encroaching spirit which they manifested, changed his friendship into enmity. He plotted with the Dutch and the French to overturn the power of the English. Clive divined his object, and Meer Jaffier was deposed in his turn. The Viceroy of Bengal was but the tool of his English protectors, and British power was firmly planted in the centre of India. Calcutta became the capital of a great empire, and the East India Company, a mere assemblage of merchants and stockjobbers, by their system of perfidy376, craft and violence, became the rulers and disposers of provinces which Alexander had coveted377 in vain. The servants of this company made their fortunes, and untold378 wealth was transported to England. Clive obtained a fortune of forty thousand pounds a year, an Irish peerage, and a seat in the House of Commons. He became an object of popular idolatry, courted by ministers, and extolled379 by Pitt. He was several times appointed governor-general of the country he had conquered, and to him England is indebted for the foundation of her power in India. But his fame and fortune finally excited the jealousy of his countrymen, and he was made to bear the sins of the company which he had enriched. The malignity380 with which he was pursued, and the disease which he acquired in India, operated unfortunately on a temper naturally irritable381; his reason became overpowered, and he died, in 1774, by his own hand.
The subsequent career of Hastings, and final Conquest of India. conquest of India, form part of the political history of England itself, during those administrations which yet remain to be described. The colonization of America and the East Indies now became involved with the politics of rival statesmen; and its history can only be appreciated by considering those acts and principles which marked the career of the Newcastles and the Pitts. The administration of the Pelhams, therefore, next claims attention.
References.—The best histories pertaining382 to the conquests of the Spaniards are undoubtedly383 those of Mr. Prescott. Irving's Columbus should also be consulted. For the early history of the North American colonies, the attention of students is directed to Grahame's and Bancroft's Histories of the United States. In regard to India, see Elphinstone's, Gleig's, Ormes's, and Mills's Histories of India; Malcolm's Life of Clive; and Macaulay's Essay on Clive. For the contemporaneous history of Great Britain, the best works are those of Tyndal, Smollett, Lord Mahon, and Belsham; Russell's Modern Europe; the Pictorial384 History of England; and the continuation of Mackintosh, in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia.
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1
colonization
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| 殖民地的开拓，殖民，殖民地化； 移殖 | |
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tract
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| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
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politic
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| adj.有智虑的；精明的；v.从政 | |
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Portuguese
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| n.葡萄牙人；葡萄牙语 | |
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providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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diffusion
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| n.流布；普及；散漫 | |
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savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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ignoble
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| adj.不光彩的，卑鄙的；可耻的 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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incited
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| 刺激，激励，煽动( incite的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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navigate
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| v.航行，飞行；导航，领航 | |
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colonize
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| v.建立殖民地，拓殖；定居，居于 | |
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cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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avarice
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| n.贪婪；贪心 | |
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needy
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| adj.贫穷的，贫困的，生活艰苦的 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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animating
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| v.使有生气( animate的现在分词 )；驱动；使栩栩如生地动作；赋予…以生命 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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cupidity
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| n.贪心，贪财 | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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populous
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| adj.人口稠密的，人口众多的 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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recording
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| n.录音，记录 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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ornamented
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| adj.花式字体的v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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irresistible
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| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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rapacity
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| n.贪婪，贪心，劫掠的欲望 | |
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subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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45
colonized
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| 开拓殖民地，移民于殖民地( colonize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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46
monopolized
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| v.垄断( monopolize的过去式和过去分词 )；独占；专卖；专营 | |
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47
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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48
territorial
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| adj.领土的，领地的 | |
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gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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50
engendered
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| v.产生（某形势或状况），造成，引起( engender的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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51
supplanted
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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52
arrogance
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| n.傲慢，自大 | |
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53
hostility
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| n.敌对，敌意；抵制［pl.］交战，战争 | |
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54
gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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wrested
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| （用力）拧( wrest的过去式和过去分词 )； 费力取得； （从…）攫取； （ 从… ） 强行取去… | |
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56
colonists
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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57
envious
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| adj.嫉妒的，羡慕的 | |
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58
avaricious
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| adj.贪婪的，贪心的 | |
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59
embarked
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| 乘船( embark的过去式和过去分词 )； 装载； 从事 | |
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vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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61
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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62
steered
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| v.驾驶( steer的过去式和过去分词 )；操纵；控制；引导 | |
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63
deriving
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| v.得到( derive的现在分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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64
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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distractions
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| n.使人分心的事[人]( distraction的名词复数 )；娱乐，消遣；心烦意乱；精神错乱 | |
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66
sordid
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| adj.肮脏的，不干净的，卑鄙的，暗淡的 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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ratified
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| v.批准，签认（合约等）( ratify的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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intrepid
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| adj.无畏的，刚毅的 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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bestow
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| v.把…赠与，把…授予；花费 | |
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72
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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rust
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| n.锈；v.生锈；(脑子)衰退 | |
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75
staple
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| n.主要产物，常用品，主要要素，原料，订书钉，钩环；adj.主要的，重要的；vt.分类 | |
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logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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counteract
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| vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消 | |
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lull
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| v.使安静，使入睡，缓和，哄骗；n.暂停，间歇 | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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oblivious
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| adj.易忘的，遗忘的，忘却的，健忘的 | |
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opium
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| n.鸦片；adj.鸦片的 | |
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insidious
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| adj.阴险的，隐匿的，暗中为害的，（疾病）不知不觉之间加剧 | |
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83
abate
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| vi.(风势，疼痛等)减弱，减轻，减退 | |
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84
ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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85
vestige
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| n.痕迹，遗迹，残余 | |
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proprietary
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| n.所有权，所有的；独占的；业主 | |
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87
gorges
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| n.山峡，峡谷( gorge的名词复数 )；咽喉v.（用食物把自己）塞饱，填饱( gorge的第三人称单数 )；作呕 | |
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latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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authorized
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| a.委任的，许可的 | |
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promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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afflicted
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| 使受痛苦，折磨( afflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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embezzle
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| vt.贪污，盗用；挪用(公款；公物等) | |
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extricated
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| v.使摆脱困难，脱身( extricate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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impended
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| v.进行威胁，即将发生( impend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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contrived
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| adj.不自然的，做作的；虚构的 | |
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perils
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| 极大危险( peril的名词复数 )； 危险的事（或环境） | |
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100
impelled
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| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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101
adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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102
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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103
descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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104
captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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105
fortitude
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| n.坚忍不拔；刚毅 | |
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106
requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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axe
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| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
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108
majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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displeased
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| a.不快的 | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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111
emigrants
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| n.（从本国移往他国的）移民( emigrant的名词复数 ) | |
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112
profligate
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| adj.行为不检的；n.放荡的人，浪子，肆意挥霍者 | |
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113
infamous
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| adj.声名狼藉的，臭名昭著的，邪恶的 | |
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114
dependants
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| 受赡养者，受扶养的家属( dependant的名词复数 ) | |
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115
aggression
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| n.进攻，侵略，侵犯，侵害 | |
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folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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appeased
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| 安抚，抚慰( appease的过去式和过去分词 )； 绥靖（满足另一国的要求以避免战争） | |
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118
deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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119
tranquillity
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| n. 平静, 安静 | |
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120
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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121
impatience
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| n.不耐烦，急躁 | |
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122
convoked
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| v.召集，召开（会议）( convoke的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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123
provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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124
boroughs
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| （尤指大伦敦的）行政区( borough的名词复数 )； 议会中有代表的市镇 | |
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125
judicious
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| adj.明智的，明断的，能作出明智决定的 | |
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126
ripened
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| v.成熟，使熟( ripen的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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127
fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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128
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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129
lamented
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| adj.被哀悼的，令人遗憾的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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130
sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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131
beheld
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| v.看，注视( behold的过去式和过去分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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132
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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133
conspiracy
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| n.阴谋，密谋，共谋 | |
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134
massacre
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| n.残杀，大屠杀；v.残杀，集体屠杀 | |
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135
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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136
plantations
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| n.种植园，大农场( plantation的名词复数 ) | |
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137
protracted
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| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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138
regained
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| 复得( regain的过去式和过去分词 )； 赢回； 重回； 复至某地 | |
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139
prosper
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| v.成功，兴隆，昌盛；使成功，使昌隆，繁荣 | |
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140
hostilities
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| n.战争；敌意(hostility的复数)；敌对状态；战事 | |
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141
abrogation
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| n.取消，废除 | |
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142
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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143
inflamed
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| adj.发炎的，红肿的v.（使）变红，发怒，过热( inflame的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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144
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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145
commissioners
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| n.专员( commissioner的名词复数 )；长官；委员；政府部门的长官 | |
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146
mandate
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| n.托管地；命令，指示 | |
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147
writ
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| n.命令状，书面命令 | |
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148
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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149
cramping
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| 图像压缩 | |
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150
contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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151
unlimited
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| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
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152
prerogative
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| n.特权 | |
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153
maxims
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| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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154
usurpation
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| n.篡位；霸占 | |
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155
disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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156
rapacious
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| adj.贪婪的，强夺的 | |
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157
remonstrated
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| v.抗议( remonstrate的过去式和过去分词 )；告诫 | |
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158
insolence
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| n.傲慢；无礼；厚颜；傲慢的态度 | |
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159
espoused
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| v.（决定）支持，拥护（目标、主张等）( espouse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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160
restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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161
retirement
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| n.退休，退职 | |
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162
rebellious
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| adj.造反的，反抗的，难控制的 | |
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163
joyfully
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| adv. 喜悦地, 高兴地 | |
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164
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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165
supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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166
stipends
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| n.（尤指牧师的）薪俸( stipend的名词复数 ) | |
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167
clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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168
incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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169
ordained
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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170
indigo
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| n.靛青，靛蓝 | |
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171
dependence
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| n.依靠，依赖；信任，信赖；隶属 | |
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172
exclusion
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| n.拒绝，排除，排斥，远足，远途旅行 | |
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173
fomenting
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| v.激起，煽动（麻烦等）( foment的现在分词 ) | |
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174
offenders
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| n.冒犯者( offender的名词复数 )；犯规者；罪犯；妨害…的人（或事物） | |
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175
lenient
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| adj.宽大的，仁慈的 | |
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176
superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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177
inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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178
solace
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| n.安慰；v.使快乐；vt.安慰(物)，缓和 | |
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179
luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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180
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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181
invincible
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| adj.不可征服的，难以制服的 | |
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182
detested
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| v.憎恶，嫌恶，痛恨( detest的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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183
dictates
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| n.命令，规定，要求( dictate的名词复数 )v.大声讲或读( dictate的第三人称单数 )；口授；支配；摆布 | |
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184
aggrandizement
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| n.增大，强化，扩大 | |
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185
elegances
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| n.高雅( elegance的名词复数 )；（举止、服饰、风格等的）优雅；精致物品；（思考等的）简洁 | |
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186
incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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187
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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188
permanently
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| adv.永恒地，永久地，固定不变地 | |
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189
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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190
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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191
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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192
incompetent
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| adj.无能力的，不能胜任的 | |
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193
resolute
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| adj.坚决的，果敢的 | |
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194
wilderness
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| n.杳无人烟的一片陆地、水等，荒漠 | |
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195
countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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196
miseries
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| n.痛苦( misery的名词复数 )；痛苦的事；穷困；常发牢骚的人 | |
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197
desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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198
moored
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| adj. 系泊的 动词moor的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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199
cod
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| n.鳕鱼；v.愚弄；哄骗 | |
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200
unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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201
exemption
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| n.豁免，免税额，免除 | |
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202
disdain
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| n.鄙视，轻视；v.轻视，鄙视，不屑 | |
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203
insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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204
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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205
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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206
domains
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| n.范围( domain的名词复数 )；领域；版图；地产 | |
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207
animated
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| adj.生气勃勃的，活跃的，愉快的 | |
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208
emolument
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| n.报酬，薪水 | |
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209
technically
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| adv.专门地，技术上地 | |
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210
devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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211
creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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212
bigoted
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| adj.固执己见的，心胸狭窄的 | |
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213
zealous
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| adj.狂热的，热心的 | |
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214
rigor
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| n.严酷，严格，严厉 | |
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215
laud
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| n.颂歌；v.赞美 | |
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216
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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217
franchise
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| n.特许，特权，专营权，特许权 | |
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218
theocracy
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| n.神权政治；僧侣政治 | |
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219
professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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220
idol
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| n.偶像，红人，宠儿 | |
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221
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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222
delusion
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| n.谬见，欺骗，幻觉，迷惑 | |
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223
paternal
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| adj.父亲的，像父亲的，父系的，父方的 | |
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224
fidelity
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| n.忠诚，忠实；精确 | |
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225
doomed
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| 命定的 | |
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226
bigotry
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| n.偏见，偏执，持偏见的行为[态度]等 | |
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227
persecution
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| n. 迫害,烦扰 | |
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228
asylum
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| n.避难所，庇护所，避难 | |
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229
persecute
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| vt.迫害，虐待；纠缠，骚扰 | |
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230
persecuted
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| （尤指宗教或政治信仰的）迫害(~sb. for sth.)( persecute的过去式和过去分词 )； 烦扰，困扰或骚扰某人 | |
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231
doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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232
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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233
speculation
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| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
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234
dissenters
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| n.持异议者，持不同意见者( dissenter的名词复数 ) | |
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235
fanatics
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| 狂热者，入迷者( fanatic的名词复数 ) | |
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236
fanaticism
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| n.狂热，盲信 | |
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237
illuminates
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| v.使明亮( illuminate的第三人称单数 )；照亮；装饰；说明 | |
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238
arrogant
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| adj.傲慢的，自大的 | |
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239
conceited
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| adj.自负的，骄傲自满的 | |
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240
harry
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| vt.掠夺，蹂躏，使苦恼 | |
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241
mingle
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| vt.使混合，使相混；vi.混合起来；相交往 | |
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242
delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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243
alluvial
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| adj.冲积的；淤积的 | |
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244
stony
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| adj.石头的，多石头的，冷酷的，无情的 | |
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245
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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246
annihilated
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| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的过去式和过去分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
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247
awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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248
barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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249
temporizing
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| v.敷衍( temporize的现在分词 )；拖延；顺应时势；暂时同意 | |
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250
benevolent
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| adj.仁慈的，乐善好施的 | |
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251
malignant
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| adj.恶性的，致命的；恶意的，恶毒的 | |
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252
vengeance
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| n.报复，报仇，复仇 | |
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253
anarchy
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| n.无政府状态；社会秩序混乱，无秩序 | |
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254
virtuous
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| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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255
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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256
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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257
antipathy
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| n.憎恶；反感，引起反感的人或事物 | |
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258
odious
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| adj.可憎的，讨厌的 | |
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259
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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260
benevolence
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| n.慈悲，捐助 | |
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261
tenacity
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| n.坚韧 | |
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262
harmonious
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|
| adj.和睦的，调和的，和谐的，协调的 | |
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263
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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264
heroism
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| n.大无畏精神，英勇 | |
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265
frugality
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|
| n.节约，节俭 | |
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266
Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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267
sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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268
withheld
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| withhold过去式及过去分词 | |
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269
attainment
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|
| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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270
exalted
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|
| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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271
jersey
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| n.运动衫 | |
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272
immortal
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|
| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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273
foe
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| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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274
chide
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| v.叱责；谴责 | |
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275
severely
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|
| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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276
sublime
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|
| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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277
intercourse
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|
| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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278
instilled
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|
| v.逐渐使某人获得（某种可取的品质），逐步灌输( instill的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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279
covenant
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|
| n.盟约，契约；v.订盟约 | |
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280
proprietor
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| n.所有人；业主；经营者 | |
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281
magistrates
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| 地方法官，治安官( magistrate的名词复数 ) | |
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282
distressed
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| 痛苦的 | |
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283
sketch
|
|
| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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284
elevation
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|
| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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285
imbued
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| v.使（某人/某事）充满或激起（感情等）( imbue的过去式和过去分词 )；使充满；灌输；激发（强烈感情或品质等） | |
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286
ERECTED
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|
| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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287
appropriation
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|
| n.拨款，批准支出 | |
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288
contention
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|
| n.争论，争辩，论战；论点，主张 | |
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289
manor
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| n.庄园，领地 | |
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290
linen
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|
| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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291
conquerors
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|
| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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292
ceded
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|
| v.让给，割让，放弃( cede的过去式 ) | |
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293
perpetuated
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|
| vt.使永存（perpetuate的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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294
eminent
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|
| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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295
esteemed
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|
| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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296
salvation
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|
| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
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297
monks
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|
| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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298
conversion
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|
| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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299
missionaries
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|
| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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300
laborers
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|
| n.体力劳动者，工人( laborer的名词复数 )；（熟练工人的）辅助工 | |
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301
labors
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|
| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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302
munificent
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|
| adj.慷慨的，大方的 | |
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303
rendezvous
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|
| n.约会，约会地点，汇合点；vi.汇合，集合；vt.使汇合，使在汇合地点相遇 | |
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304
penetrated
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|
| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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305
tributary
|
|
| n.支流；纳贡国；adj.附庸的；辅助的；支流的 | |
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306
mighty
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|
| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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307
indefatigable
|
|
| adj.不知疲倦的，不屈不挠的 | |
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308
assassinated
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|
| v.暗杀( assassinate的过去式和过去分词 )；中伤；诋毁；破坏 | |
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309
followers
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|
| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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310
mutual
|
|
| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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311
meditated
|
|
| 深思，沉思，冥想( meditate的过去式和过去分词 )； 内心策划，考虑 | |
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312
allied
|
|
| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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313
massacres
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|
| 大屠杀( massacre的名词复数 )； 惨败 | |
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314
celebrated
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|
| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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315
miserably
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|
| adv.痛苦地；悲惨地；糟糕地；极度地 | |
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316
nought
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|
| n.／adj.无，零 | |
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317
solicited
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|
| v.恳求( solicit的过去式和过去分词 )；（指娼妇）拉客；索求；征求 | |
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318
levied
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|
| 征（兵）( levy的过去式和过去分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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319
replenished
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|
| 补充( replenish的过去式和过去分词 )； 重新装满 | |
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320
hardy
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|
| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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321
patriotism
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|
| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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322
ardently
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|
| adv.热心地，热烈地 | |
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323
controversies
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| 争论 | |
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324
retard
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|
| n.阻止，延迟；vt.妨碍，延迟，使减速 | |
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325
disinterestedness
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326
piety
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|
| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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327
treatise
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|
| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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328
sects
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|
| n.宗派，教派( sect的名词复数 ) | |
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329
attentively
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|
| adv.聚精会神地；周到地；谛；凝神 | |
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330
perused
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|
| v.读（某篇文字）( peruse的过去式和过去分词 )；（尤指）细阅；审阅；匆匆读或心不在焉地浏览（某篇文字） | |
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331
admiration
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|
| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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332
epoch
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|
| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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333
philosophical
|
|
| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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334
commemorated
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|
| v.纪念，庆祝( commemorate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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335
solicitude
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|
| n.焦虑 | |
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336
immortality
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|
| n.不死，不朽 | |
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337
erecting
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|
| v.使直立，竖起( erect的现在分词 )；建立 | |
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338
fortresses
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|
| 堡垒，要塞( fortress的名词复数 ) | |
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339
displeasing
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| 不愉快的，令人发火的 | |
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340
ministry
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| n.(政府的)部；牧师 | |
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341
negotiations
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|
| 协商( negotiation的名词复数 )； 谈判； 完成（难事）； 通过 | |
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342
prosecuted
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| a.被起诉的 | |
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343
rupture
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|
| n.破裂；(关系的)决裂；v.(使)破裂 | |
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344
fortified
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| adj. 加强的 | |
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345
alluded
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|
| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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346
desolated
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|
| adj.荒凉的，荒废的 | |
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347
metropolis
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| n.首府；大城市 | |
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348
isle
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| n.小岛，岛 | |
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349
presidencies
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| n.总统的职位( presidency的名词复数 )；总统的任期 | |
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350
annulling
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|
| v.宣告无效( annul的现在分词 )；取消；使消失；抹去 | |
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351
presidency
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|
| n.总统(校长，总经理)的职位(任期) | |
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352
contentions
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| n.竞争( contention的名词复数 )；争夺；争论；论点 | |
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353
imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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354
tottering
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|
| adj.蹒跚的，动摇的v.走得或动得不稳( totter的现在分词 )；踉跄；蹒跚；摇摇欲坠 | |
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355
splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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356
lieutenants
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|
| n.陆军中尉( lieutenant的名词复数 )；副职官员；空军；仅低于…官阶的官员 | |
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357
aspired
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|
| v.渴望，追求( aspire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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358
cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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359
relinquish
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| v.放弃，撤回，让与，放手 | |
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360
prodigies
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|
| n.奇才，天才（尤指神童）( prodigy的名词复数 ) | |
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361
valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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362
gallant
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|
| adj.英勇的，豪侠的；(向女人)献殷勤的 | |
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363
plunder
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|
| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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364
plundered
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|
| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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365
dungeon
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|
| n.地牢，土牢 | |
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366
torment
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|
| n.折磨；令人痛苦的东西(人)；vt.折磨；纠缠 | |
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367
misery
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|
| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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368
avenge
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|
| v.为...复仇，为...报仇 | |
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369
inhuman
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|
| adj.残忍的，不人道的，无人性的 | |
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370
intrigued
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|
| adj.好奇的，被迷住了的v.搞阴谋诡计(intrigue的过去式)；激起…的兴趣或好奇心；“intrigue”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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371
dissimulation
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|
| n.掩饰，虚伪，装糊涂 | |
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372
deposed
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|
| v.罢免( depose的过去式和过去分词 )；（在法庭上）宣誓作证 | |
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373
conspirators
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| n.共谋者，阴谋家( conspirator的名词复数 ) | |
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374
rubies
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| 红宝石( ruby的名词复数 )； 红宝石色，深红色 | |
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375
condescended
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| 屈尊，俯就( condescend的过去式和过去分词 )； 故意表示和蔼可亲 | |
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376
perfidy
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| n.背信弃义，不忠贞 | |
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377
coveted
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| adj.令人垂涎的；垂涎的，梦寐以求的v.贪求，觊觎(covet的过去分词)；垂涎；贪图 | |
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378
untold
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| adj.数不清的，无数的 | |
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379
extolled
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| v.赞颂，赞扬，赞美( extol的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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380
malignity
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| n.极度的恶意，恶毒；（病的）恶性 | |
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381
irritable
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| adj.急躁的；过敏的；易怒的 | |
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382
pertaining
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| 与…有关系的，附属…的，为…固有的(to) | |
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383
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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384
pictorial
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| adj.绘画的；图片的；n．画报 | |
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