Contemporaneous with Frederic the Great were Maria Theresa and Catharine II.—two sovereigns who claim an especial notice, as representing two mighty2 empires. The part which Maria Theresa took in the Seven Years' War has been often alluded3 to and it is not necessary to recapitulate4 the causes or events of that war. She and Catharine II. were also implicated5 with Frederic in the partition of Poland. The misfortunes of that unhappy country will be separately considered. In alluding6 to Maria Theresa, we cannot but review the history of that great empire over which she ruled, the most powerful of the German states. The power of Austria, at different times since the death of the Emperor Charles V., threatened the liberties of Europe; and, to prevent her ascendency, the kings of France, England, and Prussia have expended7 the treasure and wasted the blood of their subjects.
By the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, at the close of the Thirty Years' War, the The Germanic Constitution. constitution of Germany was established upon a firm basis. The religious differences between the Catholics and the Protestants were settled, and religious toleration secured in all the states of the empire. It was settled that no decree of the Diet was to pass without a majority of suffrages8, and that the Imperial Chamber9 and the Aulic Council should be composed of a due proportion of Catholics and Protestants. The former was instituted by the Emperor Maximilian I., in 1495, at the Diet of Worms, and was a judicial10 tribunal, and the highest court of appeal. It consisted of seventeen judges nominated by the emperor, and took cognizance of Austrian affairs chiefly. The Aulic Council was also judicial, and was composed of eighteen persons and attended chiefly to business connected with the empire. The members of these two great judicial tribunals were Catholics; and there were also frequent disputes between them as to their respective jurisdictions11. It was ordained12 by the treaty of Westphalia that a perfect equality should be observed in the appointment of the members of these two important courts; but, in fact, twenty-four Protestants and twenty-six Catholics were appointed to the Imperial Chamber. The various states had the right of presenting members, according to political importance. The Aulic Council was composed of six Protestants and twelve Catholics, and was a tribunal to settle difficulties between the various states of which Germany was composed.
These states were nearly independent of each other, but united under one common head. Each state had its own peculiar13 government, which was generally monarchical14, and regulated its own coinage, police, and administration of justice. Each kingdom, electorate15, principality, and imperial city, which were included in the states of Germany, had the right to make war, form alliances, conclude peace, and send ambassadors to foreign courts.
The Diet of the empire consisted of representatives of each of the states, appointed by the princes themselves, and took cognizance of matters of common interest, such as regulations respecting commerce, the license16 of books, and the military force which each state was required to furnish.
The emperor had power, in some respects, over all these states; but it was chiefly confined to his hereditary17 dominions19. He could not exercise any despotic control over the various princes of the empire; but, as hereditary sovereign of Austria, Styria, Moravia, Bohemia, Hungary, and the Tyrol, he was the most powerful prince in Europe until the aggrandisement of Louis XIV.
Ferdinand III. was emperor of Germany at the peace of Westphalia; but he did not long survive it. He died in 1657, and his son Leopold succeeded him as sovereign of all the Austrian dominions. He had not completed his eighteenth year, but nevertheless was, five months after, elected Emperor of Germany by the Electoral Diet.
Great events occurred during the reign1 of Leopold I.—the Turkish war, the invasion of the Netherlands by Louis XIV., the heroic struggles of the Prince of Orange, the French invasion of the Palatinate, the accession of a Bourbon prince to the throne of Spain, the discontents of Hungary, and the victories of Marlborough and Eugene. Most of these have been already alluded to, especially in the chapter on Louis XIV., and, therefore, will not be further discussed.
The most important event connected with Austrian affairs, as distinct from those of France, England, and Holland, was the The Hungarian War. Hungarian war. Hungary was not a province of Austria, but was a distinct state. In 1526, the crowns of the two kingdoms were united, like those of England and Hanover under George I. But the Hungarians were always impatient of the rule of the Emperor of Germany, and, in the space of a century, arose five times in defence of their liberties.
In 1667, one of these insurrections took place, occasioned by the aggressive policy and government of Leopold. The Hungarians conspired20 to secure their liberties, but in vain. So soon as the emperor was aware of the conspiracy21 of his Hungarian subjects, he adopted vigorous measures, quartered thirty thousand additional troops in Hungary, loaded the people with taxes, occupied the principal fortresses22, banished24 the chiefs, and changed the constitution of the country. He also attempted to suppress Protestantism, and committed all the excesses of a military despotism. These accumulated oppressions drove a brave but turbulent people to despair, and both Catholics and Protestants united for their common safety. The insurgents25 were assisted by the Prince of Transylvania, and were supplied with money and provisions by the French. They also found a noble defender26 in Emeric Tekeli, a young Hungarian noble, who hated Austria as intensely as Hannibal hated Rome, and who, at the head of twenty thousand men, defended his country against the emperor. Moreover, he successfully intrigued27 with the Turks, who invaded Hungary with two hundred thousand men, and advanced to lay siege to Vienna. This immense army was defeated by John Sobieski, to whom Leopold appealed in his necessities, and the Turks were driven out of Hungary. Tekeli was gradually insulated from those who had formed the great support of his cause, and, in consequence of jealousies28 which Leopold had fomented29 between him and the Turks, was arrested and sent in chains to Constantinople. New victories followed the imperial army, and Leopold succeeded in making the crown of Hungary, hitherto elective, hereditary in his family. He instituted in the conquered country a horrible inquisitorial tribunal, and perpetrated cruelties which scarcely find a parallel in the proscriptions of Marius and Sylla. His son Joseph, at the age of ten, was crowned king of Hungary with great magnificence, and with the usual solemnities.
When the Hungarian difficulties were settled, Leopold had more leisure to prosecute30 his war with the Turks, in which he gained signal successes. The Ottoman Porte was humbled31 and crippled, and a great source of discontent to the Christian32 powers of Europe was removed. By the peace of Carlovitz, (1697,) Leopold secured Hungary and Sclavonia, which had been so long occupied by the Turks, and consolidated33 his empire by the acquisition of Transylvania.
Leopold I. lived only to witness the splendid victories of Marlborough and Eugene, by which the power of his great rival, Louis, was effectually reduced. He died in 1705, having reigned34 forty-six years; the longest reign in the Austrian annals, except that of Frederic III.
He was a man of great private virtues35; pure in his morals, faithful to his wife, a good father, and a kind master. He was minute in his devotions, unbounded in his charities, and cultivated in his taste. But he was reserved, cold, and phlegmatic36. His jealousy37 of Sobieski was unworthy of his station, and his severities in Hungary made him the object of execration38. He was narrow, bigoted39, and selfish. But he lived in an age of great activity, and his reign forms an era in the military and civil institutions of his country. The artillery40 had been gradually lightened, and received most of the improvements which at present are continued. Bayonets had been added to muskets41, and the use of pikes abandoned. Armies were increased from twenty or thirty thousand men to one hundred thousand, more systematically42 formed. A police was established in the cities, and these were lighted and paved. Jurisprudence was improved, and numerous grievances43 were redressed44.
Leopold was succeeded by his eldest45 son, The Emperor Joseph. Joseph, who had an energetic and aspiring46 mind. His reign is memorable47 for the continuation of the great War of the Spanish Succession, signalized by the victories of Marlborough and Eugene, the humiliation48 of the French, and the career of Charles XII. of Sweden. He also restored Bohemia to its electoral rights, rewarded the elector palatine with the honors and territories wrested49 from his family by the Thirty Years' War, and confirmed the house of Hanover in the possession of the ninth electorate. He had nearly restored tranquillity50 to his country, when he died (1711) of the small-pox—a victim to the ignorance of his physicians. He was a lover and patron of the arts, and spoke51 several languages with elegance52 and fluency53. But he had the usual faults of absolute princes; was prodigal54 in his expenditures55, irascible in his temper, fond of pageants56 and pleasure, and enslaved by women.
He was succeeded by his brother, the Archduke Charles, under the title of Charles VI. Soon after his accession, the tranquillity of Europe was established by the peace of Utrecht, and Austria once more became the preponderating57 power in Europe. But Charles VI. was not capable of appreciating the greatness of his position, or the true sources of national power. He, however, devoted58 himself zealously59 to the affairs of his empire, and effected some useful reforms. As he had no male issue, he had drawn60 up a solemn law, called the Pragmatic Sanction, according to which he transferred to his daughter, Maria Theresa, his vast hereditary possessions. He found great difficulty in securing the assent61 of the European powers to this law; but, after a while, he effected his object. On his death, (1740,) Accession of Maria Theresa. Maria Theresa succeeded to all the dominions of the house of Austria.
No princess ever ascended62 a throne under circumstances of greater peril63, or in a situation which demanded greater energy and fortitude64. Her army had dwindled65 to thirty thousand; her treasury66 contained only one hundred thousand florins; a general scarcity67 of provisions distressed69 the people, and the vintage was cut off by the frost.
Under all these embarrassing circumstances, the Elector of Bavaria laid claim to her territory, and Frederic II. marched into Silesia. It has been already stated that England sympathized with her troubles, and lent a generous aid. Her appeal to her Hungarian subjects, and the enthusiasm they manifested in her cause, have also been described. The boldness of Frederic and the distress68 of Maria Theresa drew upon them the eyes of all Europe. Hostilities70 were prosecuted71 four years, which resulted in the acquisition of Silesia by the King of Prussia. The peace of Dresden (1745) gave a respite72 to Germany, and Frederic and Maria Theresa prepared for new conflicts.
The Seven Years' War has been briefly73 described, in connection with the reign of Frederic, and need not be further discussed. The war was only closed by the exhaustion74 of all the parties engaged in it.
In 1736, Maria Theresa was married to Francis Stephen, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and he was elected (1745) Emperor of Germany, under the title of Francis I. He died soon after the peace of Hubertsburg was signed, and his son Joseph succeeded to the throne of the empire, and was co-regent, as his father had been, with Maria Theresa. But the empress queen continued to be the real, as she was the legitimate75, sovereign of Austria, and took an active part in all the affairs of Europe.
When the tranquillity of her kingdom was restored, she founded various colleges, Maria Theresa Institutes Reforms. reformed the public schools, promoted agriculture and instituted many beneficial regulations for the prosperity of her subjects. She reformed the church, diminished the number of superfluous76 clergy77, suppressed the Inquisition and the Jesuits, and formed a system of military economy which surpassed the boasted arrangements of Frederic II. "She combined private economy with public liberality, dignity with condescension78, elevation79 of soul with humility80 of spirit, and the virtues of domestic life with the splendid qualities which grace a throne." Her death, in 1780, was felt as a general loss to the people, who adored her; and her reign is considered as one of the most illustrious in Austrian annals.
Her reign was, however, sullied by the partition of Poland, in which she was concerned with Frederic the Great and Catharine II. Before this is treated, we will consider the reign of the Russian empress.
The reign of Catharine II., like that of Maria Theresa, is interlinked with that of Frederic. But some remarks concerning her predecessors81, after the death of Peter the Great, are first necessary.
Catharine, the wife of Peter, was crowned empress before his death. The first years of Successors of Peter the Great. her reign were agreeable to the people, because she diminished the taxes, and introduced a mild policy in the government of her subjects. She intrusted to Prince Menzikoff an important share in the government of the realm.
But Catharine, who, during the reign of Peter I., had displayed so much enterprise and intrepidity82, very soon disdained83 business, and abandoned herself to luxury and pleasure. She died in 1727, and Peter II. ascended her throne, chiefly in consequence of the intrigues84 of Menzikoff, who, like Richelieu, wished to make the emperor his puppet.
Peter II. was only thirteen years of age when he became emperor. He was the son of Alexis, and, consequently, grandson of Peter I. His youth did not permit him to assume the reins85 of government, and every thing was committed to the care of Menzikoff, who reigned, for a time, with absolute power. But he, at last, incurred86 the displeasure of his youthful master, and was exiled to Siberia. But Peter II. did not long survive the disgrace of his minister. He died of the small-pox, in 1730.
He was succeeded by Anne, Duchess of Holstein, and eldest daughter of Catharine I. But she lived but a few months after her accession to the throne, and the Princess Elizabeth succeeded her.
The Empress Elizabeth resembled her mother, the beautiful Catharine, but was voluptuous87 and weak. She abandoned herself to puerile88 amusements and degrading follies89. And she was as superstitious90 as she was debauched. She would continue whole hours on her knees before an image, to which she spoke, and which she ever consulted; and then would turn from bigotry91 to infamous92 sensuality. She hated Frederic II., and assisted Maria Theresa in her struggles. Russia gained no advantage from the Seven Years' War, except that of accustoming93 the Russians to the tactics of modern warfare94. She died in 1762, and was succeeded by the Grand Duke Peter Fedorowitz, son of the Duke of Holstein and Anne, daughter of Peter I. He assumed the title of Peter III.
Peter III. was a weak prince, but disposed to be beneficent. One of his first acts was to recall the numerous exiles whom the jealousy of Elizabeth had consigned95 to the deserts of Siberia. Among them was Biren, the haughty96 lover and barbarous minister of the Empress Anne and Marshal Munich, a veteran of eighty-two years of age. Peter also abolished the Inquisition, established by Alexis Michaelowitz, and promoted commerce, the arts, and sciences. He attempted to imitate the king of Prussia, for whom he had an extravagant97 admiration98. He set at liberty the Prussian prisoners, and made peace with Frederic II. He had a great respect for Germany, but despised the country over which he was called to reign. But his partiality for the Germans, and his numerous reforms, alienated99 the affections of his subjects, and he was not sufficiently100 able to curb101 the spirit of discontent. He imitated his immediate102 predecessors in the vices103 of drunkenness and sensuality, and was guilty of great imprudences. He reigned but a few months, being dethroned and Murder of Peter III. murdered. His wife, the Empress Catharine, was the chief of the conspirators105; and she was urged to the bloody106 act by her own desperate circumstances. She was obnoxious107 to her husband, who probably would have destroyed her, had his life been prolonged. She, in view of his hostility108, and prompted by an infernal ambition, sought to dethrone her husband. She was assisted by some of the most powerful nobles, and gained over most of the regiments109 of the imperial guard. The Archbishop of Novgorod and the clergy were friendly to her, because they detested110 the reforms which Peter had attempted to make. Catharine became mistress of St. Petersburg, and caused herself to be crowned Empress of Russia, in one of the principal churches. Peter had timely notice of the revolt, but not the energy to suppress it. He listened to the entreaties111 of women, rather than to the counsels of those veteran generals who still supported his throne. He was timid, irresolute112, and vacillating. He was doomed113. He was a weak and infatuated prince, and nothing could save him. He surrendered himself into the hands of Catharine, abdicated114 his empire, and, shortly after, died of poison. His wife seated herself, without further opposition115, on his throne; and the principal nobles of the empire, the army, and the clergy, took the oath of allegiance, and the monarchs116 of Europe acknowledged her as the absolute sovereign of Russia. In 1763, she was firmly established in the power which had been before wielded117 by Catharine I. She had dethroned an imbecile prince, whom she abhorred118; but the revolution was accomplished119 without bloodshed, and resulted in the prosperity of Russia.
Catharine was a woman of great moral defects; but she had many excellences120 to counterbalance them; and her rule was, on the whole, able and beneficent. She was no sooner established in the power which she had usurped121, than she directed attention to the affairs of her empire, and sought to remedy the great evils which existed. She devoted herself to business, advanced commerce and the arts, regulated the finances, improved the jurisprudence of the realm, patronized all works of internal improvement, rewarded eminent122 merit, encouraged education, and exercised a liberal and enlightened policy in her intercourse123 with foreign powers. After engaging in business with her ministers, she would converse124 with scholars and philosophers. With some she studied politics, and with others literature. She tolerated all religions, abolished odious125 courts, and enacted126 mild laws. She held out great inducements for foreigners to settle in Russia, and founded colleges and hospitals in all parts of her empire.
Beneficent as her reforms were, she nevertheless committed some great political crimes. One of these was the Assassination127 of Ivan. assassination of the dethroned Ivan, the great-grandson of the Czar Ivan Alexejewitsch, who was brother of Peter the Great. On the death of the Empress Anne, in 1731, he had been proclaimed emperor: but when Elizabeth was placed upon the throne, the infant was confined in the fortress23 of Schlussenburg. Here he was so closely guarded and confined, that he was never allowed access to the open air or the light of day. On the accession of Catharine, he was twenty-three years of age, and was extremely ignorant and weak. But a conspiracy was formed to liberate128 him, and place him on the throne. The attempt proved abortive129, and the prince perished by the sword of his jailers, who were splendidly rewarded for their infamous services.
Her scheme of foreign aggrandizement130, and especially her interference in the affairs of Poland, caused the Ottoman Porte to declare war against her, which war proved disastrous132 to Turkey, and contributed to aggrandize131 the empire of Russia. The Turks lost several battles on the Pruth, Dniester, and Danube; the provinces of Wallachia, and Moldavia, and Bessarabia submitted to the Russian arms; while a great naval133 victory, in the Mediterranean134, was gained by Alexis Orloff, whose share in the late revolution had raised him from the rank of a simple soldier to that of a general of the empire, and a favorite of the empress. The naval defeat of the Turks at Tschesmé, by Orloff and Elphinstone, was one of the most signal of that age, and greatly weakened the power of Turkey. The war was not terminated until 1774, when the Turks were compelled to make peace, by the conditions of which, Russia obtained a large accession of territory, a great sum of money, the free navigation of the Black Sea, and a passage through the Dardanelles.
In 1772 occurred the partition of Poland between Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Catharine and Frederic II. were the chief authors of this great political crime, which will be treated in the notice on Poland.
The reign of Catharine was not signalized by any other great political events which affected135 materially the interests of Europe, except the continuation of the war with the Turks, which broke out again in 1778, and which was concluded in 1792, by the treaty of Jassy. In this war, Prince Potemkin, the favorite and prime minister of Catharine, greatly distinguished136 himself; also General Suwarrow, afterwards noted137 for his Polish campaigns. In this war Russia lost two hundred thousand men, and the Turks three hundred and thirty thousand, besides expending138 two hundred and fifty millions of piasters. The most important political consequence was the aggrandizement of Russia, whose dominion18 was established on the Black Sea.
Catharine, having acquired, either by arms or intrigues, almost half of Poland, the Crimea, and a part of the frontiers of Turkey, then turned her arms against Persia. But she Death of Catharine. died before she could realize her dreams of conquest. At her death, she was the most powerful sovereign that ever reigned in Russia. She was succeeded by her son, Paul I., (1796,) and her remains139 were deposited by the side of her murdered husband, while his chief murderers, Alexis Orloff and Prince Baratinski, were ordered to stand at her funeral, on each side of his coffin140 as chief mourners.
Catharine, though a woman of great energy and talent, was ruled by favorites; the most distinguished of whom were Gregory Orloff and Prince Potemkin. The former was a man of brutal141 manners and surprising audacity142; the latter was more civilized143, but was a man disgraced, like Orloff, by every vice104. His memory, however, is still cherished in Russia on account of his military successes. He received more honors and rewards from his sovereign than is recorded of any favorite and minister of modern times. His power was equal to what Richelieu enjoyed, and his fortune was nearly as great as Mazarin's. He was knight144 of the principal orders of Prussia, Sweden, Poland, and Russia, field-marshal, commander-in-chief of the Russian armies, high admiral of the fleets, great hetman of the Cossacks, and chamberlain of the empress. He received from her a fortune of fifty millions of roubles; equal to nearly twenty-five millions of dollars. The Orloffs received also about seventeen millions in lands, and palaces, and money, with forty-five thousand peasants.
Catharine Her Character. had two passions which never left her but with her last breath—the love of the other sex, which degenerated145 into the most unbounded licentiousness146, and the love of glory, which sunk into vanity. She expended ninety millions of roubles on her favorites, the number of which is almost incredible; and she was induced to engage in wars, which increased the burdens of her subjects.
With the exception of these two passions, her character is interesting and commanding. Her reign was splendid, and her court magnificent. Her institutions and monuments were to Russia what the magnificence of Louis XIV. was to France. She was active and regular in her habits; was never hurried away by anger, and was never a prey147 to dejection; caprice and ill humor were never perceived in her conduct; she was humorous, gay, and affable; she appreciated literature, and encouraged good institutions; and, with all her faults, obtained the love and reverence148 of her subjects. She had not the virtues of Maria Theresa, but had, perhaps, greater energy of character. Her foulest149 act was her part in the dismemberment of Poland, which now claims a notice.
References.—For the reign of Maria Theresa, see Archdeacon Coxe's Memoirs150 of the House of Austria, which is the most interesting and complete. See also Putter's Constitution of the Germanic Empire; Kolhrausch's History of Germany; Heeren's Modern History; Smyth's Lectures; also a history of Germany, in Dr. Lardner's Cyclop?dia. For a life of Catharine, see Castina's Life, translated by Hunter; Tooke's Life of Catharine II.; Ségur's Vie de Catharine II.; Coxe's Travels; Heeren's and Russell's Modern History.
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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recapitulate
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| v.节述要旨，择要说明 | |
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implicated
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| adj.密切关联的；牵涉其中的 | |
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alluding
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| 提及，暗指( allude的现在分词 ) | |
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expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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suffrages
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| （政治性选举的）选举权，投票权( suffrage的名词复数 ) | |
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chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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judicial
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| adj.司法的，法庭的，审判的，明断的，公正的 | |
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jurisdictions
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| 司法权( jurisdiction的名词复数 )； 裁判权； 管辖区域； 管辖范围 | |
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ordained
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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monarchical
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| adj. 国王的，帝王的，君主的，拥护君主制的 =monarchic | |
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electorate
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| n.全体选民；选区 | |
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license
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| n.执照，许可证，特许；v.许可，特许 | |
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hereditary
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| adj.遗传的，遗传性的，可继承的，世袭的 | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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conspired
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| 密谋( conspire的过去式和过去分词 )； 搞阴谋； （事件等）巧合； 共同导致 | |
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conspiracy
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| n.阴谋，密谋，共谋 | |
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fortresses
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| 堡垒，要塞( fortress的名词复数 ) | |
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fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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insurgents
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| n.起义，暴动，造反( insurgent的名词复数 ) | |
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defender
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| n.保卫者，拥护者，辩护人 | |
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intrigued
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| adj.好奇的，被迷住了的v.搞阴谋诡计(intrigue的过去式)；激起…的兴趣或好奇心；“intrigue”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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jealousies
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| n.妒忌( jealousy的名词复数 )；妒羡 | |
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fomented
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| v.激起，煽动（麻烦等）( foment的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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prosecute
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| vt.告发；进行；vi.告发，起诉，作检察官 | |
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humbled
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| adj. 卑下的，谦逊的，粗陋的 vt. 使 ... 卑下，贬低 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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consolidated
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| a.联合的 | |
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reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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phlegmatic
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| adj.冷静的，冷淡的，冷漠的，无活力的 | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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execration
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| n.诅咒，念咒，憎恶 | |
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bigoted
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| adj.固执己见的，心胸狭窄的 | |
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40
artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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41
muskets
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| n.火枪，（尤指）滑膛枪( musket的名词复数 ) | |
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42
systematically
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| adv.有系统地 | |
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43
grievances
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| n.委屈( grievance的名词复数 )；苦衷；不满；牢骚 | |
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44
redressed
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| v.改正( redress的过去式和过去分词 )；重加权衡；恢复平衡 | |
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45
eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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46
aspiring
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| adj.有志气的；有抱负的；高耸的v.渴望；追求 | |
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memorable
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| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
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48
humiliation
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| n.羞辱 | |
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49
wrested
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| （用力）拧( wrest的过去式和过去分词 )； 费力取得； （从…）攫取； （ 从… ） 强行取去… | |
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50
tranquillity
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| n. 平静, 安静 | |
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51
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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52
elegance
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| n.优雅；优美，雅致；精致，巧妙 | |
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53
fluency
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| n.流畅，雄辩，善辩 | |
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54
prodigal
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| adj.浪费的，挥霍的，放荡的 | |
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55
expenditures
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| n.花费( expenditure的名词复数 )；使用；（尤指金钱的）支出额；（精力、时间、材料等的）耗费 | |
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56
pageants
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| n.盛装的游行( pageant的名词复数 )；穿古代服装的游行；再现历史场景的娱乐活动；盛会 | |
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57
preponderating
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| v.超过，胜过( preponderate的现在分词 ) | |
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58
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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59
zealously
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| adv.热心地；热情地；积极地；狂热地 | |
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60
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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61
assent
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| v.批准，认可；n.批准，认可 | |
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62
ascended
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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63
peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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64
fortitude
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| n.坚忍不拔；刚毅 | |
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65
dwindled
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| v.逐渐变少或变小( dwindle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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66
treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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67
scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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68
distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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69
distressed
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| 痛苦的 | |
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70
hostilities
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| n.战争；敌意(hostility的复数)；敌对状态；战事 | |
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71
prosecuted
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| a.被起诉的 | |
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72
respite
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| n.休息，中止，暂缓 | |
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73
briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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74
exhaustion
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| n.耗尽枯竭，疲惫，筋疲力尽，竭尽，详尽无遗的论述 | |
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75
legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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76
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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77
clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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78
condescension
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| n.自以为高人一等，贬低(别人) | |
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79
elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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80
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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81
predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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82
intrepidity
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| n.大胆，刚勇；大胆的行为 | |
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83
disdained
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| 鄙视( disdain的过去式和过去分词 )； 不屑于做，不愿意做 | |
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84
intrigues
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| n.密谋策划( intrigue的名词复数 )；神秘气氛；引人入胜的复杂情节v.搞阴谋诡计( intrigue的第三人称单数 )；激起…的好奇心 | |
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85
reins
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| 感情，激情； 缰( rein的名词复数 )； 控制手段； 掌管； （成人带着幼儿走路以防其走失时用的）保护带 | |
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86
incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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87
voluptuous
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| adj.肉欲的，骄奢淫逸的 | |
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88
puerile
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| adj.幼稚的，儿童的 | |
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89
follies
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| 罪恶，时事讽刺剧； 愚蠢，蠢笨，愚蠢的行为、思想或做法( folly的名词复数 ) | |
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90
superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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91
bigotry
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| n.偏见，偏执，持偏见的行为[态度]等 | |
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92
infamous
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| adj.声名狼藉的，臭名昭著的，邪恶的 | |
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93
accustoming
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| v.（使）习惯于( accustom的现在分词 ) | |
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94
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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95
consigned
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| v.把…置于（令人不快的境地）( consign的过去式和过去分词 )；把…托付给；把…托人代售；丟弃 | |
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96
haughty
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| adj.傲慢的，高傲的 | |
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97
extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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98
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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99
alienated
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| adj.感到孤独的，不合群的v.使疏远( alienate的过去式和过去分词 )；使不友好；转让；让渡（财产等） | |
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100
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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101
curb
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| n.场外证券市场，场外交易；vt.制止，抑制 | |
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102
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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103
vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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104
vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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105
conspirators
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| n.共谋者，阴谋家( conspirator的名词复数 ) | |
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106
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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107
obnoxious
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| adj.极恼人的，讨人厌的，可憎的 | |
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108
hostility
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| n.敌对，敌意；抵制［pl.］交战，战争 | |
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109
regiments
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| （军队的）团( regiment的名词复数 )； 大量的人或物 | |
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110
detested
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| v.憎恶，嫌恶，痛恨( detest的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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111
entreaties
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| n.恳求，乞求( entreaty的名词复数 ) | |
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112
irresolute
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| adj.无决断的，优柔寡断的，踌躇不定的 | |
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113
doomed
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| 命定的 | |
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114
abdicated
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| 放弃（职责、权力等）( abdicate的过去式和过去分词 )； 退位，逊位 | |
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115
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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116
monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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117
wielded
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| 手持着使用（武器、工具等）( wield的过去式和过去分词 )； 具有； 运用（权力）； 施加（影响） | |
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118
abhorred
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| v.憎恶( abhor的过去式和过去分词 )；（厌恶地）回避；拒绝；淘汰 | |
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119
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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120
excellences
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| n.卓越( excellence的名词复数 )；（只用于所修饰的名词后）杰出的；卓越的；出类拔萃的 | |
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121
usurped
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| 篡夺，霸占( usurp的过去式和过去分词 )； 盗用； 篡夺，篡权 | |
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122
eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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123
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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124
converse
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| vi.谈话，谈天，闲聊；adv.相反的，相反 | |
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125
odious
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| adj.可憎的，讨厌的 | |
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126
enacted
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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127
assassination
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| n.暗杀；暗杀事件 | |
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128
liberate
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| v.解放，使获得自由，释出，放出；vt.解放，使获自由 | |
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129
abortive
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| adj.不成功的，发育不全的 | |
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130
aggrandizement
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| n.增大，强化，扩大 | |
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131
aggrandize
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| v.增大，扩张，吹捧 | |
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132
disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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133
naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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134
Mediterranean
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| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
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135
affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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136
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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137
noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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138
expending
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| v.花费( expend的现在分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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139
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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140
coffin
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| n.棺材，灵柩 | |
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141
brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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142
audacity
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| n.大胆，卤莽，无礼 | |
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143
civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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144
knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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145
degenerated
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| 衰退，堕落，退化( degenerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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146
licentiousness
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| n.放肆，无法无天 | |
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147
prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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148
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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149
foulest
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| adj.恶劣的( foul的最高级 )；邪恶的；难闻的；下流的 | |
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150
memoirs
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| n.回忆录；回忆录传( mem,自oir的名词复数) | |
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