No kingdom in Europe has been subjected to so many Calamities of Poland. misfortunes and changes, considering its former greatness, as the Polish monarchy2. Most of the European states have retained their ancient limits, for several centuries, without material changes, but Poland has been conquered, dismembered, and plundered4. Its ancient constitution has been completely subverted5, and its extensive provinces are now annexed6 to the territories of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The greatness of the national calamities has excited the sympathy of Christian7 nations, and its unfortunate fate is generally lamented8.
In the sixteenth century, Poland was a greater state than Russia, and was the most powerful of the northern kingdoms of Europe. The Poles, as a nation, are not, however, of very ancient date. Prior to the ninth century, they were split up into numerous tribes, independent of each other, and governed by their respective chieftains. Christianity was introduced in the tenth century, and the earliest records of the people were preserved by the monks9. We know but little, with certainty, until the time of Piast, who united the various states, and whose descendants reigned10 until 1386, when the dynasty of the Jagellons commenced, and continued till 1572. Under the princes of this line, the government was arbitrary and oppressive. War was the great business and amusement of the princes, and success in it brought the highest honors. The kings were, however, weak, cruel, and capricious, ignorant, fierce, and indolent. The records of their reigns12 are the records of drunkenness, extortion, cruelty, lust13, and violence—the common history of all barbarous kings. There were some of the Polish princes who were benignant and merciful, but the great majority of them, like the Merovingian and Carlovingian princes of the Dark Ages, were unfit to reign11, were the slaves of superstition14, and the tools of designing priests. There is a melancholy15 gloom hanging over the annals of the Middle Ages, especially in reference to kings. And yet their reigns, though stained by revolting crimes, generally were to be preferred to the anarchy16 of an interregnum, or the overgrown power of nobles.
The brightest period in the history of Poland was during the reigns of the Jagellon princes, especially when Casimir I. held the sceptre of empire. During his reign, Lithuania, which then comprised Hungary, Bohemia, and Silesia, was added to his kingdom. The university of Cracow was founded, and Poland was the great resort of the Jews, to whom were committed the trade and commerce of the land. But the rigors17 of the feudal19 system, and the vast preponderance of the aristocracy, proved unfortunate for the prosperity of the kingdom. What in England was the foundation of constitutional liberty, proved in Poland to be subversive20 of all order and good government. In England, the representative of the nation was made an instrument in the hands of the king of humbling21 the great nobility. Absolutism was established upon the ruins of feudalism. But, in Poland, the Diet of the nation controlled the king, and, as the representatives of the nobility alone, perpetuated22 the worst evils of the feudal system.
When Sigismund II., the last male heir of the house of Jagellon, died, in 1572, the nobles were sufficiently23 powerful to make the The Crown of Poland Made Elective. crown elective. From this period we date the decline of Poland. The Reformation, so beneficent in its effects, did not spread to this Sclavonic country; and the barbarism of the Middle Ages received no check. On the death of Sigismund, the nobles would not permit the new sovereign to be elected by the Diet, but only by the whole body of the nobility. The plain of Praga was the place selected for the election; and, at the time appointed, such a vast number of nobles arrived, that the plain, of twelve miles in circumference24, was scarcely large enough to contain them and their retinues25. There never was such a sight seen since the crusaders were marshalled on the field of Chalcedon, for all the nobles were gorgeously apparelled, and decked with ermine, gold, and jewels. The Polish horseman frequently invests half his fortune in his horse and dress. In the centre of the field was the tent of the late king, capable of accommodating eight thousand men. The candidates for the crown were Ernest Archduke of Austria; the Czar of Russia; a Swedish prince, and Henry of Valois, Duke of Anjou, and brother of Charles IX., king of France.
The first candidate was rejected because the house of Austria was odious26 to the Polish nobles; the second, on account of his arrogance27; and the third, because he was not powerful enough to bring advantage to the republic. The choice fell on the Election of Henry, Duke of Anjou. Duke of Anjou; and he, for the title of a king, agreed to the ignominious28 conditions which the Poles proposed, viz., that he should not attempt to influence the election of his successors, or assume the title of heir of the monarchy, or declare war without the consent of the Diet, or impose taxes of any description, or have power to appoint his ambassadors, or any foreigner to a benefice in the church; that he should convoke29 the Diet every two years; and that he should not marry without its permission. He also was required to furnish four thousand French troops, in case of war; to apply annually30, for the sole benefit of the Polish state, a considerable part of his hereditary31 revenues; to pay the debts of the crown; and to educate, at his own expense, at Paris or Cracow, one hundred Polish nobles. He had scarcely been crowned when his brother died, and he was called to the throne of France. But he found it difficult to escape from his kingdom, the government of which he found to be burdensome and vexatious. No criminal ever longed to escape from a prison, more than this prince to break the fetters32 which bound him to his imperious subjects. He resolved to run away; concealed33 his intentions with great address; gave a great ball at his palace; and in the midst of the festivities, set out with full speed towards Silesia. He was pursued, but reached the territories of the emperor of Germany before he was overtaken. He reached Paris in safety, and was soon after crowned as king of France.
He was succeeded by Stephen, Duke of Transylvania; and he, again, by Sigismund, Prince of Sweden. The two sons of Sigismund, successively, were elected kings of Poland, the last of whom, John II., was embroiled34 in constant war. It was during his disastrous35 reign that Sobieski Assists the Emperor Leopold. John Sobieski, with ten thousand Poles, defeated eighty thousand Cossacks, the hereditary enemies of Poland. On the death of Michael, who had succeeded John II., Sobieski was elected king, and he assumed the title of John III. He was a native noble, and was chosen for his military talents and successes. Indeed, Poland needed a strong arm to defend her. Her decline had already commenced, and Sobieski himself could not avert36 the ruin which impended37. For some time, Poland enjoyed cessation from war, and the energies of the monarch3 were directed to repair the evils which had disgraced his country. But before he could prosecute38 successfully any useful reforms, the war between the Turks and the eastern powers of Europe broke out, and Vienna was besieged40 by an overwhelming army of two hundred thousand Mohammedans. The city was bravely defended, but its capture seemed inevitable41. The emperor of Germany, Leopold, in his despair, implored42 the aid of Sobieski. He was invested with the command of the allied43 armies of Austrians, Bavarians, Saxons, and Poles, amounting to seventy thousand men. With this force he advanced to relieve Vienna. He did not hesitate to attack the vast forces encamped beneath the walls of the Austrian capital, and obtained one of the most signal victories in the history of war. Immense treasures fell into his hands, and Vienna and Christendom were saved.
But the mean-spirited emperor treated his deliverer with arrogance and chilling coldness. No gratitude44 was exhibited or felt. But the pope sent him the rarest of his gifts—"the dove of pearls." Sobieski, in spite of the ingratitude45 of Leopold, pursued his victories over the Turks; and, like Charles Martel, ten centuries before, freed Europe from the danger of a Mohammedan yoke46. But he saved a serpent, when about to be crushed, which turned and stung him for his kindness. The dismemberment of his country soon followed the deliverance of Vienna.
He was succeeded, in 1696, by Frederic Augustus, Elector of Saxony, whose reign was a constant succession of disasters. During his reign, Poland was invaded and conquered by Charles XII. of Sweden. He was succeeded by his son, Frederic Augustus II., the most beautiful, extravagant47, luxurious48, and licentious49 monarch of his age. But he was a man of elegant tastes, and he filled Dresden with pictures and works of art, which are still the admiration50 of travellers. His reign, as king of Poland, was exceedingly disastrous. Muscovite and Prussian armies traversed the plains of Poland at pleasure, and extorted51 whatever they pleased. Faction52 was opposed by faction in the field and in the Diet. The national assembly was dissolved by the veto, the laws were disregarded, and brute53 force prevailed on every side. The miserable54 peasants in vain besought55 the protection of their brutal56 yet powerless lords. Bands of robbers infested57 the roads, and hunger invaded the cottages. The country rapidly declined in wealth, population, and public spirit.
Under the reign of Stanislaus II., who succeeded Frederic Augustus II., in 1764, the ambassadors of Prussia, Austria, and Russia, informed the miserable king that, in order to prevent further bloodshed, and restore peace to Poland, the three powers had determined58 to insist upon their claims to some of the provinces of the kingdom. This barefaced59 and iniquitous60 scheme for the dismemberment of Poland originated with Frederic the Great. So soon as the close of the Seven Years' War allowed him repose61, he turned his eyes to Poland, with a view of seizing one of her richest provinces. Territories inhabited by four million eight hundred thousand people, were divided between Frederic, Maria Theresa, and Catharine II. There were no scruples62 of conscience in the breast of Frederic, or of Catharine, a woman of masculine energy, but disgraceful morals. The conscience of Maria Theresa, however, long resisted. "The fear of hell," said she, "restrains me from seizing another's possessions;" but sophistry63 was brought to bear upon her mind, and the lust of dominion64 asserted its powerful sway. This crime was regarded with detestation by the other powers of Europe; but they were too much occupied with their own troubles to interfere65, except by expostulation. England was disturbed by difficulties in the colonies, and France was distracted by revolutionary tumults66.
Stanislaus, robbed of one third of his dominions67, now directed his attention to those reforms which had been so long imperatively68 needed. He intrusted to the celebrated69 Zamoyski the task of revising the constitution. The patriotic70 chancellor71 recommended the abolition72 of the The Liberum Veto. "liberum veto," a fatal privilege, by which any one of the armed equestrians73, who assembled on the plain of Praga to elect a king, or deliberate on state affairs, had power to nullify the most important acts, and even to dissolve the assembly. A single word, pronounced in the vehemence74 of domestic strife75, or by the influence of external corruption76, could plunge77 the nation into a lethargic78 sleep. And faction went so far as often to lead to the dissolution of the assembly. The treasury79, the army, the civil authority then fell into a state of anarchy. Zamoyski also recommended the emancipation80 of serfs, the encouragement of commerce, the elevation81 of the trading classes, and the abolition of the fatal custom of electing a king. But the Polish nobles, infatuated and doomed82, opposed these wholesome83 reforms. They even had the madness to invoke84 the aid of the Empress Catharine to protect them in their ancient privileges. She sent an army into Poland, and great disturbances85 resulted.
Too late, at last, the nobles perceived their folly86, and adopted some of the proposed reforms. But these reforms gave a new pretence87 to the allied powers for a second dismemberment. The Fall of Poland. An army of one hundred thousand men invaded Poland, to effect a new partition. The unhappy country, without fortified88 towns or mountains, abandoned by all the world, distracted by divisions, and destitute89 of fortresses90 and military stores, was crushed by the power of gigantic enemies. There were patriotism91 and bravery left, but no union or organized strength. The patriots92 made a desperate struggle under Kosciusko, a Lithuanian noble, but were forced to yield to inevitable necessity. Warsaw for a time held out against fifty thousand men; but the Polish hero was defeated in a decisive engagement, and unfortunately taken prisoner. His countrymen still rallied, and another bloody93 battle was fought at Praga, opposite Warsaw, on the other side of the Vistula, and ten thousand were slain94; Praga was reduced to a heap of ruins; and twelve thousand citizens were slaughtered95 in cold blood. Warsaw soon after surrendered, Stanislaus was sent as a captive to Russia, and the final partition of the kingdom was made.
"Sarmatia fell," but not "unwept," or "without a crime." "She fell," says Alison, "a victim of her own dissensions, of the chimera96 of equality falsely pursued, and the rigor18 of aristocracy unceasingly maintained. The eldest97 born of the European family was the first to perish, because she had thwarted98 all the ends of the social union; because she united the turbulence99 of democratic to the exclusion100 of aristocratic societies; because she had the vacillation101 of a republic without its energy, and the oppression of a monarchy without its stability. The Poles obstinately102 refused to march with other nations in the only road to civilization; they had valor103, but it could not enforce obedience104 to the laws; it could not preserve domestic tranquillity105; it could not restrain the violence of petty feuds106 and intestine107 commotions108; it could not preserve the proud nobles from unbounded dissipation and corruption; it could not prevent foreign powers from interfering109 in the affairs of the kingdom; it could not dissolve the union of these powers with discontented parties at home; it could not inspire the slowly-moving machine of government with vigor110, when the humblest partisan111, corrupted112 with foreign money, could arrest it with a word; it could not avert the entrance of foreign armies to support the factious113 and rebellious114; it could not uphold, in a divided country, the national independence against the combined effects of foreign and domestic treason; finally, it could not effect impossibilities, nor turn aside the destroying sword which had so long impended over it."
But this great crime was attended with retribution. Prussia, in her efforts to destroy Poland, paralyzed her armies on the Rhine. Suwarrow entered Warsaw when its spires115 were reddened by the fires of Praga; but the sack of the fallen capital was forgotten in the conflagration116 of Moscow. The remains117 of the soldiers of Kosciusko sought a refuge in republican France, and served with distinction, in the armies of Napoleon, against the powers that had dismembered their country.
The ruin of Poland, as an independent state, was not fully39 accomplished118 until the year 1832, when it was incorporated into the great empire of Russia. But the history of the late revolution, with all its melancholy results, cannot be well presented in this connection.
References.—Fletcher's History of Poland. Rulhière's Histoire de l'Anarchie de Pologne. Coyer's Vie de Sobieski. Parthenay's History of Augustus II. Hordynski's History of the late Polish Revolution. Also see Lives of Frederic II., Maria Theresa, and Catharine II.; contemporaneous histories of Prussia, Russia, and Austria; Alison's History of Europe; Smyth's Lectures; Russell's Modern Europe; Heeren's Modern History.
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1
calamities
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| n.灾祸，灾难( calamity的名词复数 )；不幸之事 | |
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2
monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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plundered
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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subverted
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| v.颠覆，破坏（政治制度、宗教信仰等）( subvert的过去式和过去分词 )；使（某人）道德败坏或不忠 | |
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annexed
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| [法] 附加的，附属的 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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lamented
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| adj.被哀悼的，令人遗憾的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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lust
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| n.性(淫)欲；渴(欲)望；vi.对…有强烈的欲望 | |
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superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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melancholy
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| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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anarchy
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| n.无政府状态；社会秩序混乱，无秩序 | |
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rigors
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| 严格( rigor的名词复数 )； 严酷； 严密； （由惊吓或中毒等导致的身体）僵直 | |
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rigor
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| n.严酷，严格，严厉 | |
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feudal
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| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
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subversive
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| adj.颠覆性的，破坏性的；n.破坏份子，危险份子 | |
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humbling
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| adj.令人羞辱的v.使谦恭( humble的现在分词 )；轻松打败（尤指强大的对手）；低声下气 | |
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perpetuated
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| vt.使永存（perpetuate的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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circumference
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| n.圆周，周长，圆周线 | |
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retinues
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| n.一批随员( retinue的名词复数 ) | |
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odious
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| adj.可憎的，讨厌的 | |
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arrogance
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| n.傲慢，自大 | |
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ignominious
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| adj.可鄙的，不光彩的，耻辱的 | |
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convoke
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| v.召集会议 | |
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annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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hereditary
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| adj.遗传的，遗传性的，可继承的，世袭的 | |
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fetters
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| n.脚镣( fetter的名词复数 )；束缚v.给…上脚镣，束缚( fetter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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embroiled
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| adj.卷入的；纠缠不清的 | |
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disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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avert
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| v.防止，避免；转移(目光、注意力等) | |
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impended
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| v.进行威胁，即将发生( impend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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prosecute
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| vt.告发；进行；vi.告发，起诉，作检察官 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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besieged
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| 包围，围困，围攻( besiege的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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implored
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| 恳求或乞求（某人）( implore的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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gratitude
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| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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ingratitude
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| n.忘恩负义 | |
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yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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licentious
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| adj.放纵的，淫乱的 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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extorted
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| v.敲诈( extort的过去式和过去分词 )；曲解 | |
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faction
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| n.宗派，小集团；派别；派系斗争 | |
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brute
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| n.野兽，兽性 | |
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miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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besought
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| v.恳求，乞求（某事物）( beseech的过去式和过去分词 )；(beseech的过去式与过去分词) | |
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brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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infested
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| adj.为患的，大批滋生的（常与with搭配）v.害虫、野兽大批出没于( infest的过去式和过去分词 )；遍布于 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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barefaced
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| adj.厚颜无耻的，公然的 | |
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iniquitous
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| adj.不公正的；邪恶的；高得出奇的 | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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scruples
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| n.良心上的不安( scruple的名词复数 )；顾虑，顾忌v.感到于心不安，有顾忌( scruple的第三人称单数 ) | |
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sophistry
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| n.诡辩 | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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tumults
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| 吵闹( tumult的名词复数 )； 喧哗； 激动的吵闹声； 心烦意乱 | |
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dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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imperatively
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| adv.命令式地 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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chancellor
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| n.(英)大臣；法官；(德、奥)总理；大学校长 | |
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abolition
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| n.废除，取消 | |
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equestrians
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| n.骑手（equestrian的复数形式） | |
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vehemence
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| n.热切；激烈；愤怒 | |
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strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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plunge
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| v.跳入，(使)投入，(使)陷入；猛冲 | |
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lethargic
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| adj.昏睡的，懒洋洋的 | |
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treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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emancipation
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| n.（从束缚、支配下）解放 | |
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elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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doomed
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| 命定的 | |
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wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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invoke
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| v.求助于(神、法律)；恳求，乞求 | |
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disturbances
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| n.骚乱( disturbance的名词复数 )；打扰；困扰；障碍 | |
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folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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pretence
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| n.假装，作假；借口，口实；虚伪；虚饰 | |
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fortified
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| adj. 加强的 | |
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destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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fortresses
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| 堡垒，要塞( fortress的名词复数 ) | |
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patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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patriots
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| 爱国者，爱国主义者( patriot的名词复数 ) | |
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bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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slaughtered
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| v.屠杀，杀戮，屠宰( slaughter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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chimera
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| n.神话怪物；梦幻 | |
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eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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thwarted
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| 阻挠( thwart的过去式和过去分词 )； 使受挫折； 挫败； 横过 | |
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turbulence
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| n.喧嚣，狂暴，骚乱，湍流 | |
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exclusion
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| n.拒绝，排除，排斥，远足，远途旅行 | |
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vacillation
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| n.动摇；忧柔寡断 | |
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obstinately
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| ad.固执地，顽固地 | |
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valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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tranquillity
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| n. 平静, 安静 | |
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feuds
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| n.长期不和，世仇( feud的名词复数 ) | |
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intestine
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| adj.内部的；国内的；n.肠 | |
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commotions
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| n.混乱，喧闹，骚动( commotion的名词复数 ) | |
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interfering
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| adj. 妨碍的 动词interfere的现在分词 | |
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vigor
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| n.活力，精力，元气 | |
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partisan
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| adj.党派性的；游击队的；n.游击队员；党徒 | |
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corrupted
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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factious
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| adj.好搞宗派活动的，派系的，好争论的 | |
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114
rebellious
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| adj.造反的，反抗的，难控制的 | |
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115
spires
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| n.（教堂的） 塔尖，尖顶( spire的名词复数 ) | |
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116
conflagration
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| n.建筑物或森林大火 | |
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117
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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118
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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