While the great monarchies2 of Western Europe were struggling for pre?minence, and were developing resources greater than had ever before been exhibited since the fall of the Roman empire, that great power which had alarmed and astonished Christendom in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Saracenic Empire. began to show the signs of weakness and decay. Nothing, in the history of society, is more marvellous than the rise of Mohammedan kingdoms. The victories of the Saracens and Turks were rapid and complete; and in the tenth century, they were the most successful warriors3 on the globe, and threatened to subvert4 the world. They had planted the standard of the Prophet on the walls of Eastern capitals, and had extended their conquests to India on the east, and to Spain on the west. Powerful Mohammedan states had arisen in Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the Crusaders alone arrested the progress of these triumphant5 armies. The enthusiasm which the doctrines6 of Mohammed had kindled7, cannot easily be explained; but it was fresh, impetuous, and self-sacrificing. Successive armies of Mohammedan invaders8 overwhelmed the ancient realms of civilization, and reduced the people whom they conquered and converted to a despotic yoke9. But success enervated10 the victorious11 conquerors12 of the East, the empire of the Caliphs was broken up, and great changes took place even in those lands where the doctrines of the Koran prevailed. Mohammed perpetuated14 a religion, but not an empire. Different Saracenic chieftains revolted from the "Father of the Faithful," and established separate kingdoms, or viceroyalties, nearly independent of the acknowledged successors of Mohammed. The Saracenic empire was early dismembered, and the sultans of Egypt, Spain, and Syria contested for pre?minence.
But a new power arose on the ruins of the Saracen empire, and became the enthusiastic defenders15 of the religion of Islam. The Rise of the Turks. Turks were an obscure tribe of barbarians16 when Bagdad was the seat of a powerful monarchy17. Their origin has been traced to the wilds of Scythia; but they early deserted18 their native forests in search of more fruitful regions. When Apulia and Sicily were subdued19 by the Norman pirates, a swarm20 of these Scythian shepherds settled in Armenia, probably in the ninth century, and, by their valor21 and simplicity22, soon became a powerful tribe. Not long after they were settled in their new abode23, the Sultan of Persia invoked24 their aid to assist him in his wars against the Caliph of Bagdad, his great rival. The Turks complied with his request, and their arms were successful. The sultan then refused to part with such useful auxiliaries25, and moreover, fearing their strength, designed to employ them in his wars against the Hindoos, and to shut them up in the centre of his dominions26. The Turkmans rebelled, withdrew into a mountainous part of the country, became robbers, and devastated28 the adjacent countries. The band of robbers gradually swelled29 into a powerful army, gained a great victory over the troops of the Sultan Mohammed, and placed their chieftain upon the Persian throne, (1038.) According to Gibbon, the new monarch1 was chosen by lot, and Seljuk had the fortune to win the prize of conquest, and became the founder30 of the dynasty of the Shepherd kings. During the reign31 of his grandson Togrul, the ancient Persian princes were expelled, and the Turks embraced the religion of the conquered. In 1055, the Turkish sultan delivered the Caliph of Bagdad from the arms of the Caliph of Egypt, who disputed with him the title of Commander of the Faithful. For this service he was magnificently rewarded by the grateful successor of the Prophet, who, at that time, banqueted in his palace at Bagdad—a venerable phantom32 of power. The victorious sultan was publicly commissioned as lieutenant33 of the caliph, and he was virtually seated on the throne of the Abbassides. Shortly after, the Turkish conqueror13 invaded the falling empire of the Greeks, and its Asiatic provinces were irretrievably lost. In the latter part of the eleventh century, the Turkish power was established in Asia Minor34, and Jerusalem itself had fallen into the hands of the sultan. He exacted two pieces of gold from the Christian35 pilgrim, and treated him, moreover, with greater cruelty than the Saracens had ever exercised. The extortion and oppression of the Turkish masters of the Sacred City led to the Crusades and the final possession of Western Asia by the followers36 of the Prophet. The Turkish power constantly increased with the decline of the Saracenic and Greek empires, but the Seljukian dynasty, like that of Abbassides at Bagdad, at last run out, and Othman, a soldier of fortune, became sultan of the Turks. He is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman empire, and under his reign, from 1299 to 1326, the Moslems made rapid strides in the progress of aggrandizement38.
Orkham, his son, instituted the force of the Janizaries, completed the Turkish Conquerors. conquest of Bithynia, and laid the foundation of Turkish power in Europe. Under his successor, Amurath I., Adrianople became the capital of the Ottoman empire, and the rival of Constantinople. Bajazet succeeded Amurath, and his conquests extended from the Euphrates to the Danube. In 1396, he defeated, at Nicopolis, a confederate army of one hundred thousand Christians39; and, in the intoxication40 of victory, declared that he would feed his horse with a bushel of oats on the altar of St. Peter, at Rome. Had it not been for the victories of Tamerlane, Constantinople, which contained within its walls the feeble fragments of a great empire, would also have fallen into his hands. He was unsuccessful in his war with the great conqueror of Asia, and was defeated at the battle of Angora, (1402,) and taken captive, and carried to Samarcand, by Tamerlane, in an iron cage.
The great Bajazet died in captivity41, and Mohammed I. succeeded to his throne. He restored, on a firmer basis, the fabric42 of the Ottoman monarchy, and devoted43 himself to the arts of peace. His successor, Amurath II., continued hostilities44 with the Greeks, and laid siege to Constantinople. But this magnificent city, the last monument of Roman greatness, resisted the Turkish arms only for a while. In 1453, it fell before an irresistible45 force of three hundred thousand men, supported by a fleet of three hundred sail. The Emperor Constantine succeeded in maintaining a siege of fifty-three days; and the religion and empire of the Christians were trodden to the dust by the Moslem37 conquerors. The city was sacked, the people were enslaved, and the Church of St. Sophia was despoiled46 of the oblations of ages, and converted into a Mohammedan mosque47. One hundred and twenty thousand manuscripts perished in the sack of Constantinople, and the palaces and treasure of the Greeks were transferred to semi-barbarians.
From that time, the Byzantine capital became the seat of the Ottoman empire; and, for more than two centuries, Turkish armies excited the fears and disturbed the peace of the world. Progress of the Turks. They gradually subdued and annexed48 Macedonia, the Peloponnesus, Epirus, Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, Armenia, Cyprus, Syria, Egypt, India, Tunis, Algiers, Media, Mesopotamia, and a part of Hungary, to the dominions of the sultan. In the sixteenth century, the Ottoman empire was the most powerful in the world. Nor should we be surprised, in view of the great success of the Turks, when we remember their singular bravery, their absorbing ambition, their almost incredible obedience49 to the commands of the sultan, and the unity50 which pervaded51 the national councils. They also fought to extend their religion, to which they were blind devotees. After the capture of Constantinople, a succession of great princes sat on the most absolute throne known in modern times; men disgraced by many crimes, but still singularly adapted to extend their dominion27.
The progress of the Turks justly alarmed the Emperor Charles V., and he exerted all his energies to unite the German princes against them, but unsuccessfully. The Sultan Solyman, called the Magnificent, maintained his supremacy52 over Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia, ravaged53 Hungary, wrested54 Rhodes from the Knights55 of St. John, conquered the whole of Arabia, and attacked the Portuguese56 dominion in India. He raised the Turkish empire to the highest pitch of its greatness, and died while besieging57 Sigeth, as he was completing the conquest of Hungary. His empire was one vast camp, and his decrees were dated from the imperial stirrup. The iron sceptre which he and his successors wielded58 was imbrued in blood; and discipline alone was the politics of his soldiers, and rapine their resources.
Selim II. succeeded Solyman, and set the ruinous example of not going himself to the wars, and of carrying them on by his lieutenants59. His son, Murad III., penetrated60 into Russia and Poland, and made war on the Emperor of Germany. Mohammed III., who died in 1604, murdered all his brothers, nineteen in number, and executed his own son. It was usual, when an emperor mounted the throne, for him to put to death his brothers and nephews. Indeed, the characters of the sultans were marked by unusual ferocity and jealousy61, and they were unscrupulous in the means they took to advance their power. The world has never seen more suspicious tyrants62; and it ever must excite our wonder that they were so unhesitatingly obeyed. But they were, however, sometimes dethroned by the Janizaries, who constituted a sort of imperial guard. Osman II., fearing their power, and disgusted with their degeneracy, resolved to destroy them, as dangerous to the state. But his design was discovered, and he himself lost his life, (1622.) Several monsters of tyranny and iniquity63 succeeded him, whose reigns64 were disgraced by every excess of debauchery and cruelty. Their subjects, however, had not, as yet, lost vigor65, temperance, and ambition, and still continued to furnish troops unexampled for discipline and bravery, and bent66 on conquest and dominion.
The Turkish power received no great checks until the reign of Mohammed IV., during which Sobieski defeated an immense army, which had laid siege to Vienna. By the peace of Carlovitz, in 1699, Transylvania was ceded67 to the Emperor of Germany, and a barrier was raised against Mohammedan invasion.
The Russians, from the time of Peter the Great, looked with great jealousy on the power of the sultan, and several wars were the result. No Russian sovereign desired the humiliation68 of the Porte more than Catharine II. A bloody69 contest ensued, signalized by the victories of Galitzin, Suwarrow, Romanzoff, and Orloff, by which Turkey became a second class power, no longer feared by the European states.
From the peace of Carlovitz, the Decline of Turkish Power. decline of the Ottoman empire has been gradual, but marked, owing to the indifference70 of the Turks to all modern improvements, and a sluggish71, conservative policy, hostile to progress, and sceptical of civilization. The Turks have ever been bigoted72 Mohammedans, and hostile to European influences. The Oriental dress has been preserved in Constantinople, and all the manners and customs of the people are similar to what they were in Asia several centuries ago.
One of the peculiarities73 of the Turkish government, in the most flourishing period of its history, was the Turkish Institutions. institution of the Janizaries—a guard of soldiers, to whom was intrusted the guardianship74 of the sultan, and the protection of his capital. When warlike and able princes were seated on the throne, this institution proved a great support to the government; but when the reins75 were held by effeminate princes, the Janizaries, like the Pr?torian Guards of Rome, acquired an undue76 ascendency, and even deposed77 the monarchs78 whom they were bound to obey. They were insolent79, extortionate, and extravagant80, and became a great burden to the state. At first they were brave and resolute81; but they gradually lost their skill and their courage, were uniformly beaten in the later wars with the Russians, and retained nothing of the soldier but the name. Mahmoud II., in our own time, succeeded in dissolving this dangerous body, and in introducing European tactics into his army.
The Turkish institutions have Turkish Character. reference chiefly to the military character of the nation. All Mussulmans, in the eye of the law, are soldiers, to whom the extension of the empire and the propagation of their faith were the avowed82 objects of warfare83. They may be regarded, wherever they have conquered, as military colonists84, exercising great tyranny, and treating all vanquished85 subjects with contempt. The government has ever been a pure despotism, and both the executive and legislative86 authorities have been vested in the sultan. He is the sole fountain of honor; for, in Turkey, birth confers no privilege. His actions are regarded as prescribed by an inevitable87 fate, and his subjects suffer with resignation. The evils of despotism are aggravated88 by the ignorance and effeminacy of those to whom power is intrusted, although the grand vizier, who is the prime minister of the empire, is generally a man of great experience and talent. All the laws of the country are founded upon the precepts89 of the Koran, the example of Mohammed, the precepts of the four first caliphs, and the decision of learned doctors upon disputed cases. Justice is administered promptly90, but without much regard to equity91 or mercy; and the course of the grand vizier is generally marked with blood. The character of the people partakes of the nature of their government, religion, and climate. They are arrogant92, ignorant, and austere93; passing from devotion to obscenity; fastidiously abstemious94 in some things, and grossly sensual in others. They have cherished the virtues95 of hospitality, and are fond of conversation but their domestic life is spent in voluptuous96 idleness, and is dull and insipid97 compared with that of Europeans. But the Turks have degenerated98. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, they were simple, brave, and religious. They founded an immense empire on the ruins of Asiatic monarchies, and filled the world with the terror of their arms. For two hundred years their power has been retrograding, and there is much reason now to believe that a total eclipse of their glory is soon to take place.
References.—See Knolle's History of Turkey. Eton's Survey of the Turkish Empire. Upham's History of the Ottoman Empire. Encyclop?dia Britannica. Heeren's Modern History. Madden's Travels in Turkey. Russell's Modern Europe. Life of Catharine II.
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1
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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monarchies
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| n. 君主政体, 君主国, 君主政治 | |
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warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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subvert
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| v.推翻；暗中破坏；搅乱 | |
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triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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kindled
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| （使某物）燃烧，着火( kindle的过去式和过去分词 )； 激起（感情等）； 发亮，放光 | |
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invaders
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| 入侵者，侵略者，侵入物( invader的名词复数 ) | |
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yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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enervated
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| adj.衰弱的，无力的v.使衰弱，使失去活力( enervate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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conquerors
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| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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perpetuated
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| vt.使永存（perpetuate的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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defenders
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| n.防御者( defender的名词复数 )；守卫者；保护者；辩护者 | |
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barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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swarm
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| n.(昆虫)等一大群；vi.成群飞舞；蜂拥而入 | |
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valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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invoked
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| v.援引( invoke的过去式和过去分词 )；行使（权利等）；祈求救助；恳求 | |
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auxiliaries
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| n.助动词 ( auxiliary的名词复数 )；辅助工，辅助人员 | |
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dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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devastated
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| v.彻底破坏( devastate的过去式和过去分词)；摧毁；毁灭；在感情上（精神上、财务上等）压垮adj.毁坏的；极为震惊的 | |
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swelled
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| 增强( swell的过去式和过去分词 )； 肿胀； （使）凸出； 充满（激情） | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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phantom
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| n.幻影，虚位，幽灵；adj.错觉的，幻影的，幽灵的 | |
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lieutenant
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| n.陆军中尉，海军上尉；代理官员，副职官员 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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Moslem
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| n.回教徒，穆罕默德信徒；adj.回教徒的，回教的 | |
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aggrandizement
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| n.增大，强化，扩大 | |
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Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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intoxication
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| n.wild excitement;drunkenness；poisoning | |
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captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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fabric
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| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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hostilities
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| n.战争；敌意(hostility的复数)；敌对状态；战事 | |
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irresistible
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| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
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despoiled
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| v.掠夺，抢劫( despoil的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mosque
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| n.清真寺 | |
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annexed
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| [法] 附加的，附属的 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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pervaded
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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ravaged
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| 毁坏( ravage的过去式和过去分词 )； 蹂躏； 劫掠； 抢劫 | |
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wrested
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| （用力）拧( wrest的过去式和过去分词 )； 费力取得； （从…）攫取； （ 从… ） 强行取去… | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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Portuguese
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| n.葡萄牙人；葡萄牙语 | |
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besieging
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| 包围，围困，围攻( besiege的现在分词 ) | |
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wielded
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| 手持着使用（武器、工具等）( wield的过去式和过去分词 )； 具有； 运用（权力）； 施加（影响） | |
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lieutenants
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| n.陆军中尉( lieutenant的名词复数 )；副职官员；空军；仅低于…官阶的官员 | |
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penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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tyrants
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| 专制统治者( tyrant的名词复数 )； 暴君似的人； （古希腊的）僭主； 严酷的事物 | |
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iniquity
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| n.邪恶；不公正 | |
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64
reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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vigor
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| n.活力，精力，元气 | |
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bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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ceded
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| v.让给，割让，放弃( cede的过去式 ) | |
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humiliation
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| n.羞辱 | |
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bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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sluggish
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| adj.懒惰的，迟钝的，无精打采的 | |
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bigoted
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| adj.固执己见的，心胸狭窄的 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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guardianship
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| n. 监护, 保护, 守护 | |
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reins
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| 感情，激情； 缰( rein的名词复数 )； 控制手段； 掌管； （成人带着幼儿走路以防其走失时用的）保护带 | |
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undue
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| adj.过分的；不适当的；未到期的 | |
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deposed
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| v.罢免( depose的过去式和过去分词 )；（在法庭上）宣誓作证 | |
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monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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insolent
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| adj.傲慢的，无理的 | |
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extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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resolute
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| adj.坚决的，果敢的 | |
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avowed
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| adj.公开声明的，承认的v.公开声明，承认( avow的过去式和过去分词) | |
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warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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colonists
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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legislative
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| n.立法机构，立法权；adj.立法的，有立法权的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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aggravated
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| 使恶化( aggravate的过去式和过去分词 )； 使更严重； 激怒； 使恼火 | |
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precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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equity
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| n.公正，公平，（无固定利息的）股票 | |
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arrogant
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| adj.傲慢的，自大的 | |
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austere
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| adj.艰苦的；朴素的，朴实无华的；严峻的 | |
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abstemious
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| adj.有节制的，节俭的 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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voluptuous
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| adj.肉欲的，骄奢淫逸的 | |
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insipid
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| adj.无味的，枯燥乏味的，单调的 | |
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degenerated
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| 衰退，堕落，退化( degenerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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