Mr. Alison has found it necessary to devote ten large octavo volumes to the life and times of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon Bonaparte; nor can the varied1 events connected with his brilliant career be satisfactorily described in fewer volumes. The limits of this work will not, however, permit a notice extending beyond a few pages. Who, then, even among those for whom this History is especially designed, will be satisfied with our brief review? But only a brief allusion2 to very great events can be made; for it is preposterous3 to attempt to condense the life of the greatest actor on the stage of real tragedy in a single chapter. And yet there is a uniformity in nearly all of the scenes in which he appears. The history of war is ever the same—the exhibition of excited passions, of restless ambition, of dazzling spectacles of strife4, pomp, and glory. Pillage5, oppression, misery6, crime, despair, ruin, and death—such are the evils necessarily attendant on all war, even glorious war, when men fight for their homes, for their altars, or for great ideas. The details of war are exciting, but painful. We are most powerfully reminded of our degeneracy, of our misfortunes, of the Great Destroyer. The "Angel Death" appears before us, in grim terrors, punishing men for crimes. But while war is so awful, and attended with all the evils of which we can conceive, or which it is the doom8 of man to suffer, yet warriors9 are not necessarily the enemies of mankind. They are the instruments of the Almighty10 to scourge11 a wicked world, or to bring, out of disaster and suffering, great and permanent blessings12 to the human race.
Napoleon is contemplated13 by historians in both those lights. The English look upon him, generally, as an ambitious usurper15, who aimed to erect16 a universal empire upon universal ruin; as an Alexander, a C?sar, an Attila, a Charles XII. The French nation regard him almost as a deity17, as a messenger of good, as a great conqueror18, who fought for light and freedom. But he was not the worst or the best of warriors. Character of Napoleon. His extraordinary and astonishing energies were called into exercise by the circumstances of the times; and he, taking advantage of both ideas and circumstances, attempted to rear a majestic19 throne, and advance the glory of the country, of which he made himself the absolute ruler. His nature was not sanguinary, or cruel, or revengeful; but few conquerors21 have ever committed crimes on a greater scale, or were more unscrupulous in using any means, lawful22 or unlawful, to accomplish a great end. Napoleon had enlightened views, and wished to advance the real interests of the French nation, but not until he had climbed to the summit of power, and realized all those dreams which a most inordinate23 ambition had excited. He doubtless rescued his country from the dangers which menaced it from foreign invasion; but his conquests and his designs led to still greater combinations, and these, demanding for their support the united energies of Christendom, deluged25 the world with blood. Napoleon, to an extraordinary degree, realized the objects to which he had aspired26; but these were not long enjoyed, and he was hurled27 from his throne of grandeur28 and of victory, to impress the world, which he mocked and despised, of the vanity of military glory and the dear-earned trophies29 of the battle field. No man was ever permitted by Providence30 to accomplish so much mischief31, and yet never mortal had more admirers than he, and never were the opinions of the wise more divided in regard to the effects of his wars. A painful and sad recital32 may be made of the desolations he caused, so that Alaric, in comparison, would seem but a common robber, while, at the same time, a glorious eulogium might be justly made of the many benefits he conferred upon mankind. The good and the evil are ever combined in all great characters; but the evil and the good are combined in him in such vast proportions, that he seems either a monster of iniquity33, or an object of endless admiration34. There are some characters which the eye of the mind can survey at once, as the natural eye can take in the proportions of a small but singular edifice35; but Napoleon was a genius and an actor of such wonderful greatness and majesty36, both from his natural talents and the great events which he controlled, that he rises before us, when we contemplate14 him, like some vast pyramid or some majestic cathedral, which the eye can survey only in details. Our age is not sufficiently37 removed from the times in which he lived, we are too near the object of vision, to pronounce upon the general effect of his character, and only prejudiced or vain persons would attempt to do so. He must remain for generations simply an object of awe38, of wonder, of dread39, of admiration, of hatred40, or of love.
Nor can we condense the events of his life any more than we can analyze41 his character and motives42. We do not yet know their relative importance. In the progress of ages, some of them will stand out more beautiful and more remarkable43, and some will be entirely44 lost sight of. Thousands of books will waste away as completely as if they were burned, like the Alexandrian library; and a future age may know no more of the details of Napoleon's battles than we now know of Alexander's marches. But the main facts can never be lost; something will remain, enough to "point a moral or adorn45 a tale." The object of all historical knowledge is moral wisdom, and this we may learn from narratives46 as brief as the stories of Joseph and Daniel, or the accounts which Tacitus has left us of the lives of the Roman tyrants47.
Napoleon Early Days of Napoleon. Bonaparte was born in Corsica, the 15th of August, 1769, of respectable parents, and was early sent to a royal military school at Brienne. He was not distinguished48 for any attainments49, except in mathematics; he was studious, reserved, and cold; he also exhibited an inflexible50 will, the great distinguishing quality of his mind. At the age of fourteen, in view of superior attainments, he was removed to the military school at Paris, and, at the age of seventeen, received his commission as second lieutenant51 in a regiment52 of artillery53.
When the Revolution Early Services to the Republic. broke out, Toulon, one of the arsenals54 of France, took a more decided55 part in favor of the king and the constitution than either Marseilles or Lyons, and invited the support of the English and Spanish squadrons. The Committee of Public Safety resolved to subdue56 the city; and Bonaparte, even at that time a brigadier-general, with the command of the artillery at the siege, recommended a course which led to the capture of that important place.
For his distinguished services and talents, he was appointed second in command, by the National Convention, when that body was threatened and overawed by the rebellious57 National Guard. He saved the state and defended the constitutional authorities, for which service he was appointed second in command of the great army of the interior, and then general-in-chief in the place of Barras, who found his new office as director incompatible58 with the duties of a general.
The other directors who now enjoyed the supreme59 command were Reubel, Laréveillère-Lépeaux, Le Tourneur, and Carnot. Sièyes, a man of great genius, had been elected, but had declined. Among these five men, Carnot was the only man of genius, and it was through his exertions60 that France, under the Committee of Public Safety, had been saved from the torrent61 of invasion. But Barras, though inferior to Carnot in genius, had even greater influence, and it was through his favor that Bonaparte received his appointments. That a young man of twenty-five should have the command of the army of the interior, is as remarkable as the victories which subsequently showed that his elevation62 was not the work of chance, but of a providential hand.
The acknowledged favorite of Barras was a young widow, by birth a Creole of the West Indies, whose husband, a general in the army of the Rhine, had been guillotined during the Reign24 of Terror. Her name was Josephine Beauharnois; and, as a woman of sense, of warm affections, and of rare accomplishments63, she won the heart of Bonaparte, and was married to him, March 9, 1796. Her dowry was the command of the army of Italy, which, through her influence, the young general received.
Then commenced his brilliant military career. United with Josephine, whom he loved, he rose in rank and power.
The army which Bonaparte commanded was composed of forty-two thousand men, while the forces of the Italian states numbered one hundred and sixty thousand, and could with ease be increased to three hundred thousand. But Italian soldiers had never been able to contend with either Austrian or French, and Bonaparte felt sure of victory. His soldiers were young men, inured64 to danger and toil65; and among his officers were Berthier, Massena, Marmont, Augereau, Serrurier, Joubert, Lannes, and Murat. They were not then all generals, but they became afterwards marshals of France.
The campaign of 1796, in The Italian Campaign. Italy, was successful beyond precedent66 in the history of war; and the battles of Montenotte, Millesimo, and Dego, the passage of the bridge of Lodi, the siege of Mantua, and the victories at Castiglione, Caldiero, Arcola, Rivoli, and Mantua, extended the fame of Bonaparte throughout the world. The Austrian armies were every where defeated, and Italy was subjected to the rule of the French. "With the French invasion commenced tyranny under the name of liberty, rapine under the name of generosity67, the stripping of churches, the robbing of hospitals, the levelling of the palaces of the great, and the destruction of the cottages of the poor; all that military license68 has of most terrible, all that despotic authority has of most oppressive."
While Bonaparte was subduing69 Italy, the French under Moreau were contending, on the Rhine, with the Austrians under the Archduke Charles. Several great battles were fought, and masterly retreats were made, but without decisive results.
It is surprising that England, France, and the other contending powers, were able at this time to commence the contest, much more so to continue it for more than twenty years. The French Directory, on its accession to power, found the finances in a state of inextricable confusion. Assignats had fallen to almost nothing, and taxes were collected with such difficulty, that there were arrears70 to the amount of fifteen hundred millions of francs. The armies were destitute71 and ill paid, the artillery without horses, and the infantry72 depressed73 by suffering and defeat. In England, the government of Pitt was violently assailed74 for carrying on a war against a country which sought simply to revolutionize her own institutions, and which all the armies of Europe had thus far failed to subdue. Mr. Fox, and others in the opposition75, urged the folly76 of continuing a contest which had already added one hundred millions of pounds to the national debt, and at a time when French armies were preparing to invade Italy; but Pitt argued that the French must be nearly exhausted77 by their great exertions, and would soon be unable to continue the warfare78. The nation, generally, took this latter view of the case, and parliament voted immense supplies.
The year 1797 opened gloomily for England. The French had gained immense successes. Bonaparte had subdued79 Italy, Hoche had suppressed the rebellion in La Vendée, Austria was preparing to defend her last barriers in the passes of the Alps, Holland was virtually incorporated with Republican France, Spain had also joined its forces, and the whole continent was arrayed against Great Britain. England had interfered80 in a contest in which she was not concerned, and was forced to reap the penalty. The funds fell from ninety-eight to fifty-one, and petitions for a change of ministers were sent to the king from almost every city of note in the kingdom. The Bank of England stopped payment in specie, and the country was overburdened by taxation81. Nevertheless, parliament voted new supplies, and made immense preparations, especially for the increase of the navy. One hundred and twenty-four ships of the line, one hundred and eighty frigates82, and one hundred and eighty-four sloops83, were put in commission, and sent to the various quarters of the globe.
Soon after occurred the memorable84 mutiny in the English fleet, which produced the utmost alarm; but it was finally suppressed by the vigorous measures which the government adopted, and the happy union of firmness and humanity, justice and concession85 which Mr. Pitt exercised. The mutiny was entirely disconnected with France, and resulted from the real grievances86 which existed in the navy; grievances which, to the glory of Pitt, were candidly87 considered and promptly88 redressed89. The temporary disgrace which resulted to the navy by this mutiny was soon, however, wiped away by the battle of Cape90 St. Vincent, in which Admiral Jervis, seconded by Nelson and Collingwood, with fifteen ships of the line and six frigates, defeated a Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line and twelve frigates. This important naval91 victory delivered England from all fears of invasion, and inspired courage into the hearts of the nation, groaning92 under the heavy taxes which the war increased. Before the season closed, the Dutch fleet, of fifteen ships of the line and eleven frigates, was defeated by an English one, under Admiral Duncan, consisting of sixteen ships of the line and three frigates. The battles of Camperdown and Battle of St. Vincent. Cape St. Vincent, in which the genius of Duncan and Nelson were signally exhibited, were among the most important fought at sea during the war, and diffused93 unexampled joy throughout Great Britain. The victors were all rewarded. Jervis became Earl St. Vincent, Admiral Duncan became a viscount, and Commodore Nelson became a baronet. Soon after the bonfires and illuminations for these victories were ended, Mr. Burke died urging, as his end approached, the ministry94 to persevere95 in the great struggle to which the nation was committed.
While the English were victorious96 on the water, the French obtained new triumphs on the land. In twenty days after the opening of the campaign of 1797, Bonaparte had driven the Archduke Charles, with an army equal to his own, over the Julian Alps, and occupied Carniola, Carinthia, Trieste, Fiume, and the Italian Tyrol, while a force of forty-five thousand men, flushed with victory, was on the northern declivity97 of the Alps, within fifty leagues of Vienna. In the midst of these successes, an insurrection broke out in the Venetian territories; and, as Bonaparte was not supported, as he expected, by the Armies of the Rhine, and partly in consequence of the jealousy98 of the Directory, he resolved to forego all thoughts of dictating99 peace under the walls of Vienna, and contented100 himself with making as advantageous101 terms as possible with the Austrian government. Bonaparte accomplished102 his object, and directed his attention to the subjugation103 of Conquest of Venice by Napoleon. Venice, no longer the "Queen of the Adriatic, throned on her hundred isles," but degenerate104, weakened, and divided. Bonaparte acted, in his treaty with Austria, with great injustice105 to Venice, and also encouraged the insurrection of the people in her territories. And when the Venetian government attempted to suppress rebellion in its own provinces, Bonaparte affected106 great indignation, and soon found means to break off all negotiations107. The Venetian senate made every effort to avert108 the storm, but in vain. Bonaparte declared war against Venice, and her fall soon after resulted. The French seized all the treasure they could find, and obliged the ruined capital to furnish heavy contributions, and surrender its choicest works of art. Soon after, the youthful conqueror established himself in the beautiful chateau109 of Montebello near Milan, and there dictated110 peace to the assembled ambassadors of Germany, Rome, Genoa, Venice, Naples, Piedmont, and the Swiss republic. The treaty of Campo Formio exhibited both the strength and the perfidy111 of Bonaparte, especially in reference to Venice, which was disgracefully despoiled112 to pay the expenses of the Italian wars. Among other things, the splendid bronze horses, which, for six hundred years, had stood over the portico113 of the church of St. Mark, to commemorate114 the capture of Constantinople by the Venetian crusaders, and which had originally been brought from Corinth to Rome by ancient conquerors, were removed to Paris to decorate the Tuileries.
Bonaparte's journey from Italy to Paris, after Venice, with its beautiful provinces, was surrendered to Austria, was a triumphal procession. The enthusiasm of the Parisians was boundless115; the public curiosity to see him indescribable. But he lived in a quiet manner, and assumed the dress of a member of the Institute, being lately elected. Great fêtes were given to his honor, and his victories were magnified.
But he was not content with repose116 or adulation. His ambitious soul panted for new conquests, and he conceived the scheme of his Invasion of Egypt. Egyptian invasion, veiled indeed from the eyes of the world by a pretended attack on England herself. He was invested, with great pomp, by the Directory, with the command of the army of England, but easily induced the government to sanction the invasion of Egypt. It is not probable that Bonaparte seriously contemplated the conquest of England, knowing the difficulty of supporting and recruiting his army, even if he succeeded in landing his forces. He probably designed to divert the attention of the English from his projected enterprise.
When all was ready, Bonaparte (9th May) embarked117 at Toulon in a fleet of thirteen ships of the line, fourteen frigates, seventy-two brigs, and four hundred transports, containing thirty-six thousand soldiers and ten thousand sailors. He was joined by reinforcements at Genoa, Ajaccio, Civita Castellana, and on the 10th of June arrived at Malta, which capitulated without firing a shot; proceeded on his voyage, succeeded in escaping the squadron of Nelson, and on the 1st of July reached Alexandria. He was vigorously opposed by the Mamelukes, who were the actual rulers of the country, but advanced in spite of them to Cairo, and marched along the banks of the Nile. Near the Pyramids, a great battle took place, and the Mamelukes were signally defeated, and the fate of Egypt was sealed.
But Nelson got intelligence of Bonaparte's movements, and resolved to "gain a peerage, or a grave in Westminster Abbey." Then succeeded the battle of the Nile, and the victory of Nelson, one of the most brilliant but bloody118 actions in the history of naval warfare. Nelson was wounded, but gained a peerage and magnificent presents. The battle was a mortal stroke to the French army, and made the conquest of Egypt useless. Bonaparte found his army exiled, and himself destined119 to hopeless struggles with Oriental powers. But he made gigantic efforts, in order to secure the means of support, to prosecute120 scientific researches, and to complete the conquest of the country. He crossed the desert which separates Africa from Asia, with his army, which did not exceed sixteen thousand men, invaded Syria, stormed Jaffa, massacred its garrison121, since he could not afford to support the prisoners,—a most barbarous measure, and not to be excused even in view of the policy of the act,—and then advanced to Siege of Acre. Acre. Its memorable siege in the time of the Crusades should have deterred122 Bonaparte from the attempt to subdue it with his little army in the midst of a hostile population. But he made the attack. The fortress123, succored124 by Sir Sidney Smith, successfully resisted the impetuosity of his troops, and they were compelled to retire with the loss of three thousand men. His discomfited125 army retreated to Egypt, and suffered all the accumulated miseries126 which fatigue127, heat, thirst, plague, and famine could inflict128. He, however, amidst all these calamities129, added to discontents among the troops, won the great battle of Aboukir, and immediately after, leaving the army under the command of Kleber, returned to Alexandria, and secretly set sail for France, accompanied by Berthier, Lannes, Murat, Marmont, and other generals. He succeeded in escaping the English cruisers, and, on the 8th of October, 1799, landed in France.
Bonaparte, had he not been arrested at Acre by Sir Sidney Smith, probably would have conquered Asia Minor130, and established an Oriental empire; but such a conquest would not have been permanent. More brilliant victories were in reserve for him than conquering troops of half-civilized Turks and Arabs.
During the absence of Bonaparte in Egypt, the French Directory became unpopular, and the national finances more embarrassed than ever. But Switzerland was invaded and conquered—an outrage131 which showed the ambitious designs of the government more than any previous attack which it had made on the liberties of Europe. The Papal States were next seized, the venerable pontiff was subjected to cruel indignities132, and the treasures and monuments of Rome were again despoiled. "The Vatican was stripped to its naked walls, and the immortal133 frescoes134 of Raphael and Michael Angelo alone remained in solitary135 beauty amidst the general desolation." The King of Sardinia was driven from his dominions136, and Naples yielded to the tricolored flag. Immense military contributions were levied138 in all these unfortunate states, and all that was beautiful in art was transported to Paris.
In the mean time, the spirits of the English were revived by the Reverses of the French. victories of Nelson, and greater preparations than ever were made to resist the general, who now plainly aimed at the conquest of Europe. England, Austria, and Russia combined against France and her armies met with reverses in Italy and on the Rhine. Suwarrow, with a large army of Russians united with Austrians gained considerable success, and General Moreau was obliged to retreat before him. Serrurier surrendered with seven thousand men, and Suwarrow entered Milan in triumph, with sixty thousand troops. Turin shared the fate of Milan, and Piedmont and Lombardy were overrun by the allies. The republicans were expelled from Naples. Mantua fell, and Suwarrow marched with his conquering legions into Switzerland.
These disasters happened while Bonaparte was in Egypt; and his return to France was hailed with universal joy. His victories in Egypt had prepared the way for a most enthusiastic reception, and for his assumption of the sovereign power. All the generals then in Paris paid their court to him, and his saloon, in his humble139 dwelling140 in the Rue20 Chantereine, resembled the court of a monarch141. Lannes, Murat, Berthier, Jourdan, Augereau, Macdonald, Bournonville, Leclerc, Lefebvre, and Marmont, afterwards so illustrious as the marshals of the emperor, offered him the military dictatorship, while Sièyes, Talleyrand, and Régnier, the great civil leaders, concurred142 to place him at the head of affairs. He himself withdrew from the gaze of the people, affected great simplicity143, and associated chiefly with men distinguished for literary and scientific attainments. But he secretly intrigued145 with Sièyes and with his generals. Three of the Directory sent in their resignations, and Napoleon assumed the reins146 of government under the title of Napoleon First Consul147. First Consul, and was associated with Sièyes and Roger Ducos. The legislative148 branches of the government resisted, but the Council of Five Hundred was powerless before the bayonets of the military. A new revolution was effected, and despotic power in the hands of a military chieftain commenced. He, however, signalized himself by the clemency149 he showed in the moment of victory, and the principles of humanity, even in the government of a military despot, triumphed over the principles of cruelty. Bonaparte chose able men to assist him in the government. Talleyrand was made minister of foreign affairs. Fouché retained his portfolio150 of police, and the celebrated151 La Place was made minister of the interior. On the 24th of December, 1799, the new constitution was proclaimed; and, shortly after, Sièyes and Roger Ducos withdrew from the consulate152, and gave place to Cambacères and Lebrun, who were in the interests of Napoleon.
The first step of the first consul was to offer peace to Great Britain; and he wrote a letter to the king, couched in his peculiar153 style of mock philanthropy and benevolence154, in which he spoke155 of peace as the first necessity and truest glory of nations! Lord Grenville, minister of foreign affairs, replied in a long letter, in which he laid upon France the blame of the war, in consequence of her revolutionary principles and aggressive spirit, and refused to make peace while the causes of difficulty remained; in other words, until the Bourbon dynasty was restored. The Commons supported the government by a large majority, and all parties prepared for a still more desperate conflict. Napoleon was obliged to fight, and probably desired to fight, feeling that his power and the greatness of his country would depend upon the victories he might gain; that so long as the éclat of his government continued, his government would be strong. Mr. Pitt was probably right in his opinion that no peace could be lasting156 with a revolutionary power, and that every successive peace would only pave the way for fresh aggressions. Bonaparte could only fulfil what he called his destiny, by continual agitation158; and this was well understood by himself and by his enemies. The contest had become one of life and death; and both parties resolved that no peace should be made until one or the other was effectually conquered The land forces of Great Britain, at the commencement of the year 1800, amounted to one hundred and sixty-eight thousand men, exclusive of eighty thousand militia159, while one hundred and twenty thousand seamen160 and marines were voted. The ships in commission were no less than five hundred, including one hundred and twenty-four of the line. The charter of the Bank of England was renewed, and the union with Ireland effected. The various German states made still greater exertions, and agreed to raise a contingent161 force of three hundred thousand men. They were greatly assisted in this measure by subsidies162 from Great Britain. Austria, alone, had in the field at this time a force of two hundred thousand men, half of whom belonged to the army of Italy under Melas.
To make head against the united forces of England and Austria, with a defeated army, an exhausted treasury163, and a disunited people, was the difficult task of Bonaparte. His first object was to improve the finances; his second, to tranquillize La Vendée; his third, to detach Russia from the allies; his fourth, Immense Military Preparations. to raise armies equal to the crisis; and all these measures he rapidly accomplished. One hundred and twenty thousand men were raised by conscription, without any exemption164 from either rank or fortune, and two hundred and fifty thousand men were ready to commence hostilities165. The first consul suppressed the liberty of the press, fixed166 his residence in the Tuileries, and established the usages and ceremonial of a court. He revoked167 the sentence of banishment168 on illustrious individuals, established a secret police, and constructed the gallery of the Louvre.
Hostilities commenced in Germany, and General Moreau was successful over General Kray at the battles of Engen, Moeskirch, and Biberach. General Massena fought with great courage in the Maritime169 Alps, but was obliged to retreat before superior forces, and shut himself up in Genoa, which endured a dreadful siege, but was finally compelled to surrender. The victor, Melas, then set out to meet Bonaparte himself, who was invading Italy, and had just effected his wonderful passage over the Alps by the Great St. Bernard, one of the most wonderful feats170 in the annals of war; for his artillery and baggage had to be transported over one of the highest and most difficult passes of the Alps. The passes of the St. Gothard and Mount Cenis were also effected by the wings of the army. The first action was at Montebello, which ended in favor of the French; and this was soon followed by a decisive and brilliant victory at Marengo, (June 14,) one of the most obstinately171 contested during the war, and which was attended with greater results than perhaps any battle that had yet occurred in modern warfare. Moreau also gained a great victory over the Austrians at Hohenlinden, and Macdonald performed great exploits amid the mountains of the Italian Tyrol. The treaty of Lunéville, (February 9, 1801,) in consequence of the victorious career of Bonaparte, ceded172 to France the possession of Belgium, and the whole left bank of the Rhine. Lombardy was erected173 into an independent state, Venice was restored to Austria, and the independence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Cisalpine, and Ligurian republics was guaranteed. This peace excited unbounded joy at Paris, and was the first considerable pause in the continental174 strife.
Napoleon returned to his capital to reconstruct society, which was entirely The Reforms of Napoleon. disorganized. It was his object to restore the institutions of religion, law, commerce, and education. He did not attempt to give constitutional freedom. This was impracticable; but he did desire to bring order out of confusion. One night, going to the theatre, he narrowly escaped death by the explosion of an "infernal machine." He attributed the design of assassination175 to the Jacobins, and forthwith transported one hundred and thirty of them, more as a statesman than as a judge. He was determined177 to break up that obnoxious178 party, and the design against his life furnished the pretence179. Shortly after, he instituted the Legion of Honor, an order of merit which was designed to restore gradually the gradation in the ranks of society. He was violently opposed, but he carried his measures through the Council of State; and this institution, which at length numbered two thousand persons, civil and military, became both popular and useful. He then restored the external institution of religion, and ten archbishops and fifty bishops180 administered the affairs of the Gallican Church. The restoration of the Sunday, with its customary observances, was hailed by the peasantry with undisguised delight, and was a pleasing sight to the nations of Europe. He then contemplated the complete restoration of all the unalienated national property to the original proprietors181, but was forced to abandon the design. A general amnesty, was also proclaimed to emigrants182, by which one hundred thousand people returned, not to enjoy their possessions, but to recover a part of them, and breathe the air of their native land. At last, he resolved to make himself first consul for life, and seat his family on a monarchical183 throne. He was opposed by the Council of State; but he appealed to the people, and three million three hundred and sixty-eight thousand two hundred and nine, out of three million five hundred and fifty-seven thousand eight hundred and eighty-five electors, voted for his elevation.
The The Code Napoléon. "Code Napoléon" then occupied his attention, indisputably the greatest monument of his reign, and the most beneficial event of his age. All classes and parties have praised the wisdom of this great compilation184, which produced more salutary changes than had been effected by all the early revolutionists. Amid these great undertakings186 of the consul, the internal prosperity of France was constantly increasing, and education, art, and science received an immense impulse. Every thing seemed to smile upon Bonaparte, and all appeared reconciled to the great power which he exercised.
But there were some of his generals who were attached to republican principles, and viewed with ill-suppressed jealousy the rapid strides he was making to imperial power. Moreau, the victor at Hohenlinden, was at the head of these, and, in conjunction with Fouché, who had been turned out of his office on account of the immense power which it gave him, formed a conspiracy187 of republicans and royalists to overturn the consular188 throne. But Fouché revealed the plot to Bonaparte, who restored him to power, and Generals Moreau and Pichegru, the Duke d'Enghien, and other illustrious persons were arrested. The duke himself was innocent of the conspiracy, but was sacrificed to the jealousy of Bonaparte, who wished to remove from the eyes of the people this illustrious scion189 of the Bourbon family, the only member of it he feared. This act was one of the most cruel and unjustifiable, and therefore, impolitic, which Bonaparte ever committed. "It was worse than a crime," said Talleyrand; "it was a blunder." His murder again lighted the flames of continental war, and from it may be dated the commencement of that train of events which ultimately hurled Napoleon from the imperial throne.
That possession was what his heart now coveted190, and he therefore seized what he desired, and what he had power to retain. On the 18th of May, 1804, Napoleon was declared Emperor of the French, and an overwhelming majority of the electoral votes of France confirmed him in his usurpation191 of the throne of Hugh Capet.
His first step, as emperor, was the creation of eighteen marshals, all memorable in the annals of military glory—Berthier, Murat, Moncey, Jourdan, Massena, Augereau, Bernadotte, Soult, Brune, Lannes, Mortier, Ney, Davoust, Bessières, Kellermann, Lefebvre, Pérignon, and Serrurier. The individual lives of these military heroes cannot here be alluded192 to.
Early in the year 1805, the great powers of England, Austria, and Russia entered into a coalition193 to reduce France to its ancient limits, and humble the despot who had usurped194 the throne. Enormous preparations were made by all the belligerent195 states, and four hundred thousand men were furnished by the allies for active service; a force not, however, much larger than Napoleon raised to prosecute his scheme of universal dominion137.
Among other designs, he Meditated196 Invasion of England. meditated the invasion of England itself, and assembled for that purpose one of the most splendid armies which had been collected since the days of the Roman legions. It amounted to one hundred and fourteen thousand men, four hundred and thirty-two pieces of cannon197, and fourteen thousand six hundred and fifty-four horses. Ample transports were provided to convey this immense army to the shores of England. But the English government took corresponding means of defence, having fathomed198 the designs of the enemy, who had succeeded in securing the co?peration of Spain. This great design of Napoleon was defeated by the vigilance of the English, and the number of British ships which defended the coasts—the "wooden walls" which preserved England from a most imminent199 and dreaded200 danger.
Frustrated201 in the attempt to invade Great Britain, Napoleon instantly conceived the plan of the campaign of Battle of Austerlitz. Austerlitz, and without delay gave orders for the march of his different armies to the banks of the Danube. The army of England on the shores of the Channel, the forces in Holland, and the troops in Hanover were formed into seven corps202, under the command of as many marshals, comprising altogether one hundred and ninety thousand men, while the troops of his allies in Italy and Germany amounted to nearly seventy thousand more. Eighty thousand new conscripts were also raised, and all of these were designed for the approaching conflict with the Austrians.
But before the different armies could meet together in Germany, Nelson had gained the great and ever-memorable victory of Trafalgar, (October 23,) on the coast of Spain, by which the naval power of France and Spain was so crippled and weakened, that England remained, during the continuance of the war, sovereign mistress of the ocean. Nothing could exceed the transports of exultation203 which pervaded204 the British empire on the news of this great naval victory—perhaps the greatest in the annals of war. And all that national gratitude205 could prompt was done in honor of Nelson. The remains206 of the fallen victor were buried in St. Paul's Cathedral, over which a magnificent monument was erected. His brother, who inherited his title, was made an earl, with a grant of six thousand pounds a year, and an estate worth one hundred thousand pounds. Admiral Collingwood, the second in command, was raised to the peerage, with a grant of two thousand pounds yearly. But the thoughts of the nation were directed to the departed hero, and countless207 and weeping multitudes followed him to the grave; and his memory has ever since been consecrated208 in the hearts of his countrymen, who regard him, and with justice, as the greatest naval commander whom any nation or age has produced.
Early in October, the forces of Napoleon were marshalled on the plains of Germany, and the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, acted on the defensive209. Napoleon advanced rapidly on Vienna, seized the bridge which led from it to the northern provinces of the empire, passed through the city, and established his head-quarters at Schoenbrunn. On the 1st of December was fought the celebrated battle of Austerlitz, the most glorious of all Napoleon's battles, and in which his military genius shone with the greatest lustre210, and which decided the campaign. Negotiations with Austria, dictated by the irresistible211 power of the French emperor, were soon concluded at Presburg, (27th December,) by which that ancient state was completely humbled212. The dethronement of the King of Naples followed, and the power of Napoleon was consolidated213 on the continent of Europe.
The defeat of Austerlitz was a great blow to the allied214 powers, and the health and spirits of Pitt sunk under the disastrous215 intelligence. A devouring216 fever seized his brain, and delirium217 quenched218 the fire of his genius. He died on the 23d of January, 1806, at the age of forty-seven, with the exclamation219, "Alas220, my country!" after having nobly guided the British bark in the most stormy times his nation had witnessed since the age of Cromwell. He was buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey, and died in debt, after having the control, for so many years, of the treasury of England. Mr. Fox did not long survive his more illustrious rival, but departed from the scene of conflict and of glory the 13th of September.
The humiliation221 of Prussia succeeded that of Austria. The battle of Battle of Jena. Jena, the 14th of October, prostrated222, in a single day, the strength of the Prussian monarchy223, and did what the united armies of Austria, Russia, and France could not accomplish by the Seven Years' War. Napoleon followed up his victories by bold and decisive measures, invested Magdeburg, which was soon abandoned, entered Berlin in triumph, and levied enormous contributions on the kingdom, to the amount of one hundred and fifty-nine millions of francs. In less than seven weeks, three hundred and fifty standards, four thousand pieces of cannon, and eighty thousand prisoners were taken; while only fifteen thousand, out of one hundred and twenty thousand men, were able to follow the standards of the conquered king to the banks of the Vistula. Alarm, as well as despondency, now seized all the nations of Europe. All the coalitions224 which had been made to suppress a revolutionary state had failed, and the proudest monarchs225 of Christendom were suppliant226 at the feet of Napoleon.
The unfortunate Frederic William sued for peace; but such hard conditions were imposed by the haughty227 conqueror at Berlin, that the King of Prussia prepared for further resistance, especially in view of the fact that the Russians were coming to his assistance At Berlin, Napoleon issued his celebrated decrees against British commerce, which, however, flourished in spite of them.
Napoleon then advanced into Poland to meet the Russian armies, and at Eylau, on the 8th of February, 1807, was fought a bloody battle, in which fifty thousand men perished. It was indecisive, but had the effect of checking the progress of the French armies. But Napoleon ordered new conscriptions, and made unusual exertions, so that he soon had two hundred and eighty thousand men between the Vistula and Memel. Napoleon Aggrandizes228 France. New successes attended the French armies, which resulted in a peace with Russia, at Tilsit, on the river Niemen, at which place Napoleon had a personal interview with the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia. By this treaty, (7th July,) Poland was erected into a separate principality, and the general changes which Napoleon had made in Europe were ratified229 by the two monarchs. Soon after, Napoleon, having subdued resistance on the continent of Europe, returned to his capital. He was now at the height of his fame and power, but on an elevation so high that his head became giddy. Moreover, his elevation, at the expense of Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Prussia, Saxony, and Russia, to say nothing of inferior powers, excited the envy and the hatred of all over whom he had triumphed, and prepared the way for new intrigues230 and coalitions.
Napoleon after the peace of Tilsit, devoted231 all his energies to the preservation232 of his power and to the improvement of his country, and expected of his numerous subjects the most implicit144 obedience233 to his will. He looked upon himself as having received a commission from Heaven to rule and to reign as absolute monarch of a vast empire, as a being upon whom the fate of France depended. The watchwords "liberty," "equality," "fraternity," "the public welfare," were heard no more, and gave place to others which equally flattered the feelings of the French people—"the interests of the empire," "the splendor234 of the imperial throne." From him emanated235 all glory and power, and the whole structure of the state, executive, judicial236, and legislative, depended upon his will. Freedom, in the eyes of the people, was succeeded by glory, and the éclat of victory was more highly prized than any fictitious237 liberty. The Code Napoléon rapidly progressed; schools of science were improved; arts, manufactures, and agriculture revived. Great monuments were reared to gratify the national pride and perpetuate238 the glory of conquests. The dignity of the imperial throne was splendidly maintained, and the utmost duties of etiquette239 were observed. He encouraged amusements, festivities, and fêtes; and Talma, the actor, as well as artists and scholars, received his personal regard. But his reforms and his policy had reference chiefly to the conversion240 of France into a nation of soldiers; and his system of conscription secured him vast and disciplined armies, not animated241, as were the soldiers of the revolution, by the spirit of liberty, but transformed into mechanical forces. The time was to come, in spite of the military enthusiasm of his veteran soldiers, when it was to be proved that the throne of absolutism is better sustained by love than by mechanism242.
Napoleon had already elevated his two brothers, Louis and Joseph, to the thrones of Holland and Naples. He Aggrandizement243 of Napoleon's Family. now sought to make his brother Joseph the King of Spain. He availed himself of a quarrel between King Charles and his son; acted as mediator244, in the same sense that Hastings and Clive acted as mediators in the quarrels of Indian princes; and prepared to seize, not to humble, one of the oldest and proudest monarchies245 of Europe.
The details of that long war on the Spanish peninsula, which resulted from the appointment of Joseph Bonaparte to the throne of Spain, have been most admirably traced by Napier, in the best military history that has been written in modern times. The great hero of that war was Wellington; and, though he fought under the greatest disadvantages and against superior forces,—though unparalleled sufferings and miseries ensued among all the belligerent forces,—still he succeeded in turning the tide of French conquest.
Spain did not fall without a struggle. The Spanish Juntas246 adopted all the means of defence in their power; and the immortal defence of Saragossa, the capital of Arragon, should have taught the imperial robber that the Spanish spirit, though degenerate, was not yet extinguished.
It became almost the universal wish of the English to afford the Spaniards every possible assistance in their honorable struggle, and Sir Arthur Wellesley, the conqueror of the Mahrattas, landed in Portugal in August, 1808. He was immediately opposed by Marshal Junot. Napoleon could not be spared to defend in person the throne of his brother, but his most illustrious marshals were sent into the field; and, shortly after, the battle of Corunna was fought, at which Sir John Moore, one of the bravest of generals, was killed in the moment of victory.
Long and disastrous was that The Peninsular War. Peninsular war. Before it could be closed, Napoleon was called to make new exertions. Austria had again declared war, and the forces which she raised were gigantic. Five hundred and fifty thousand men, in different armies, were put under the command of the Archduke Charles. Napoleon advanced against him, and was again successful, at Abensberg and at Eckmuhl. Again he occupied Vienna; but its fall did not discourage the Austrians, who, soon after, were marshalled against the French at Wagram, which dreadful battle made Napoleon once more the conqueror of Austria. On the 14th of November, 1809, he returned to Paris, and soon after made the grand mistake of his life.
He resolved to divorce Josephine, whom he loved and respected; a woman fully7 worthy247 of his love, and of the exalted248 position to which she was raised. But she had no children, and Napoleon wanted an heir to the universal empire which he sought to erect on the ruins of the ancient monarchies of Europe. The dream of Charlemagne and of Charles V. was his, also—the revival249 of the great Western Empire. Moreover, Napoleon sought a domestic alliance with the proud family of the German emperor. He sought, by this, to gratify his pride and strengthen his throne. He perhaps also contemplated, with the Emperor of Austria for his father and ally, the easy conquest of Russia. Alexander so supposed. "His next task," said he, "will be to drive me back to my forests."
The Empress Josephine heard of the intentions of Napoleon with indescribable anguish250, but submitted to his will; thus sacrificing her happiness to what she was made to believe would advance the welfare of her country and the interests of that heartless conqueror whom she nevertheless loved with unparalleled devotion. On the 11th of March, 1810, the espousals of Napoleon and Maria Louisa were celebrated at Vienna, the person of the former being represented by his favorite Berthier. A few days afterwards she set out for France; and her marriage, in a domestic point of view, was happy. Josephine had the advantage over her in art and grace, but she was superior in the charms of simplicity and modesty251. "It is singular," says Sir Walter Scott, "that the artificial character should have belonged to the daughter of a West India planter; that, marked by nature and simplicity, to a princess of the proudest court in Europe."
Meanwhile, the War in Spain. war in Spain was prosecuted252, and Napoleon was master of its richest and most powerful provinces. Seventy-five thousand men in Andalusia, under Soult; fifty thousand under Marmont, in Leon; sixty thousand under Bessières, at Valladolid and Biscay; forty-five thousand under Macdonald, at Gerona, to guard Catalonia; thirty thousand under Suchet, twenty thousand under Joseph and Jourdan, fifteen thousand under Régnier, besides many more thousand troops in the various garrisons,—in all over three hundred thousand men,—held Spain in military subjection. Against these immense forces, marshalled under the greatest generals of France, Spain and her allies could oppose only about ninety thousand men, for the most part ill disciplined and equipped.
The vital point of resistance was to be found shut up within the walls of Cadiz, which made a successful defence. But Tortosa, Tarragona, Saguntum, and Valentia, after making most desperate resistance, fell. But Wellington gained, on the other hand, the great battle of Albuera, one of the bloodiest253 ever fought, and which had a great effect in raising the spirits of his army and of the Spaniards. The tide of French conquest was arrested, and the English learned from their enemies those arts of war which had hitherto made Napoleon triumphant254.
In the next campaign of 1812, new successes were obtained by Wellington, and against almost overwhelming difficulties. He renewed the siege of Badajoz, and carried this frontier fortress, which enabled him now to act on the offensive, and to enter the Spanish territories. The fall of Ciudad Rodrigo was attended with the same important consequences. Wellington now aimed to reduce the French force on the Peninsula, although vastly superior to his own. He had only sixty thousand men; but, with this force, he invaded Spain, defended by three hundred thousand. Salamanca was the first place of consequence which fell: Marmont was totally defeated. Wellington advanced to Madrid, which he entered the 12th of August, amid the enthusiastic shouts of the Spanish population. Soult was obliged to raise the siege of Cadiz, abandon Andalusia, and hasten to meet the great English general, who had turned the tide of French aggression157. Wellington was compelled, of course, to retire before the immense forces which were marching against him, and fell back to Salamanca, and afterwards to Ciudad Rodrigo. The campaign, on the part of the English, is memorable in the annals of successful war, and the French power was effectually weakened, if it was not destroyed.
In the midst of these successes, Napoleon prepared for his disastrous Invasion of Russia. invasion of Russia; the most gigantic and most unfortunate expedition in the whole history of war.
Napoleon was probably induced to invade Russia in order to keep up the succession of victories. He felt that, to be secure, he must advance; that, the moment he sought repose, his throne would begin to totter255; that nothing would sustain the enthusiasm of his countrymen but new triumphs, commensurate with his greatness and fame. Some, however, dissuaded256 him from the undertaking185, not only because it was plainly aggressive and unnecessary, but because it was impolitic. Three hundred thousand men were fighting in Spain to establish his family on the throne of the Bourbons, and the rest of Europe was watching his course, with the intention of assailing257 him so soon as he should meet with misfortunes.
But neither danger nor difficulty deterred Napoleon from the commission of a gigantic crime, for which no reasonable apology could be given, and which admits of no palliation. He made, however, a fearful mistake, and his rapid downfall was the result. Providence permitted him to humble the powers of Europe, but did not design that he should be permanently258 aggrandized259 by their misfortunes.
The forces of all the countries he had subdued were marshalled with the French in this dreadful expedition, and nothing but enthusiasm was excited in all the dominions of the empire. The army of invasion amounted to above five hundred thousand men, only two hundred thousand of whom were native French. To oppose this enormous force, the Russians collected about three hundred thousand men; but Napoleon felt secure of victory.
On the banks of the Niemen he reviewed the principal corps of his army, collected from so many countries, and for the support of which they were obliged to contribute. On the 24th of June, he and his hosts crossed the river; and never, probably, in the history of man, was exhibited a more splendid and imposing260 scene.
The Russians retreated as the allied armies advanced; and, on the 28th of June, Napoleon was at Wilna, where he foolishly remained seventeen days—the greatest military blunder of his life. The Emperor Alexander hastened to Moscow, collected his armaments, and issued proclamations to his subjects, which excited them to the highest degree of enthusiasm to defend their altars and their firesides.
Both armies approached Battle of Smolensko. Smolensko about the 16th of July, and there was fought the first great battle of the campaign. The town was taken, and the Russians retreated towards Moscow. But before this first conflict began, a considerable part of the army had perished from sickness and fatigue. At Borodino, another bloody battle was fought, in which more men were killed and wounded than in any battle which history records. Napoleon, in this battle, did not exhibit his usual sagacity or energy, being, perhaps, overwhelmed with anxiety and fatigue. His dispirited and broken army continued the march to Moscow, which was reached the 14th of September. The Sacred City of the Russians was abandoned by the army, and three hundred thousand of the inhabitants took to flight. Napoleon had scarcely entered the deserted261 capital, and taken quarters in the ancient palace of the czars, before the city was discovered to be on fire in several places; and even the Kremlin itself was soon enveloped262 in flames. Who could have believed that the Russians would have burnt their capital? Such an event surely never entered into a Frenchman's head. The consternation263 and horrors of that awful conflagration264 can never be described, or even conceived. Pillage and murder could scarcely add to the universal wretchedness. Execration265, indignation, and vengeance266 filled the breasts of both the conquerors and the conquered. But who were the conquerors? Alas! those only, who witnessed the complicated miseries and awful destruction of the retreating army, have answered.
The Retreat of the French. retreat was the saddest tragedy ever acted by man, but rendered inevitable267 after the burning of Moscow, for Napoleon could not have advanced to St. Petersburg. For some time, he lingered in the vicinity of Moscow, hoping for the submission268 of Russia. Alexander was too wise to treat for peace, and Napoleon and his diminished army, loaded, however, with the spoil of Moscow, commenced his retreat, in a hostile and desolate269 country, harassed270 by the increasing troops of the enemy. Soon, however, heavy frosts commenced, unusual even in Russia, and the roads were strewed271 by thousands who perished from fatigue and cold. The retreat became a rout272; for order, amid general destruction and despair, could no longer be preserved. The Cossacks, too, hung upon the rear of the retreating army, and cut off thousands whom the elements had spared. In less than a week, thirty thousand horses died, and the famished273 troops preyed274 upon their remains. The efforts of Napoleon proved in vain to procure275 provisions for the men, or forage276 for the horses. Disasters thickened, and all abandoned themselves to despair. Of all the awful scenes which appalled277 the heart, the passage of the Beresina was the most dreadful. When the ice was dissolved in the following spring, twelve thousand dead bodies were found upon the shore. The shattered remnants of the Grand Army, after unparalleled suffering, at length reached the bank of the Niemen. Not more than twenty thousand of the vast host with which Napoleon passed Smolensko left the Russian territory. Their course might be traced by the bones which afterwards whitened the soil. But before the Polish territories were reached, Napoleon had deserted his army, and bore to Paris himself the first intelligence of his great disaster. One hundred and twenty-five thousand of his troops had died in battle, one hundred and ninety thousand had been taken prisoners, and one hundred and thirty-two thousand had died of cold, fatigue and famine. Only eighty thousand had escaped, of whom twenty-five thousand were Austrians and eighteen thousand were Prussians. The annals of the world furnish no example of so complete an overthrow278 of so vast an armament, or so terrible a retribution to a vain-glorious nation.
This calamity279 proved the chief cause of Napoleon's overthrow. Had he retained his forces to fight on the defensive, he would have been too strong for his enemies; but, by his Russian campaign, he lost a great part of his veteran troops, and the veneration280 of his countrymen.
His failure was immediately followed by the resurrection of Germany. Both Austria and Prussia threw off the ignominious281 yoke282 he had imposed, and united with Russia to secure their ancient liberties. The enthusiasm of the Prussians was unbounded, and immense preparations were made by all the allied powers for a new campaign. Napoleon exerted all the energies, which had ever distinguished him, to rally his exhausted countrymen, and a large numerical force was again raised. But the troops were chiefly conscripts, young men, unable to endure the fatigue which his former soldiers sustained, and no longer inspired with their sentiments and ideas.
The campaign of 1813 was opened in Germany, signalized by the battles of Battles of Lutzen and Bautzen. Lutzen and Bautzen, in which the French had the advantage. Saxony still remained true to Napoleon, and he established his head-quarters in Dresden. The allies retreated, but only to prepare for more vigorous operations. England nobly assisted, and immense supplies were sent to the mouth of the Elbe, and distributed immediately through Germany. While these preparations were going on, the battle of Vittoria, in Spain, was fought, which gave a death blow to French power in the Peninsula, and placed Wellington in the front rank of generals. Napoleon was now more than ever compelled to act on the defensive, which does not suit the genius of the French character, and he resolved to make the Elbe the base of his defensive operations. His armies, along this line, amounted to the prodigious283 number of four hundred thousand men; and Dresden, the head-quarters of Napoleon, presented a scene of unparalleled gayety and splendor, of licentiousness284, extravagance, and folly. But Napoleon was opposed by equally powerful forces, under Marshal Blucher, the Prussian general, a veteran seventy years of age, and Prince Schwartzenberg, who commanded the Austrians. But these immense armies composed not one half of the forces arrayed in desperate antagonism285. Nine hundred thousand men in arms encircled the French empire, which was defended by seven hundred thousand.
The allied forces marched upon Dresden, and a dreadful battle was fought, on the 27th of August, beneath its walls, which resulted in the retreat of the allies, and in the death of General Moreau, who fought against his old commander. But Napoleon was unable to remain long in that elegant capital, having exhausted his provisions and forage, and was obliged to retreat. On the 15th of October was fought the celebrated battle of Battle of Leipsic. Leipsic, in which a greater number of men were engaged than in any previous battle during the war, or probably in the history of Europe—two hundred and thirty thousand against one hundred and sixty thousand. The triumph of the allies was complete. Napoleon was overpowered by the overwhelming coalition of his enemies. He had nothing to do, after his great discomfiture286, but to retreat to France, and place the kingdom in the best defence in his power. Misfortunes thickened in every quarter; and, at the close of the campaign, France retained but a few fortresses287 beyond the Rhine. The contest in Germany was over, and French domination in that country was at an end. Out of four hundred thousand men, only eighty thousand recrossed the Rhine. So great were the consequences of the battle of Leipsic, in which the genius of Napoleon was exhibited as in former times, but which availed nothing against vastly superior forces. A grand alliance of all the powers of Europe was now arrayed against Napoleon—from the rock of Gibraltar to the shores of Archangel; from the banks of the Scheldt to the margin288 of the Bosphorus; the mightiest289 confederation ever known, but indispensably necessary. The greatness of Napoleon is seen in his indomitable will in resisting this confederation, when his allies had deserted him, and when his own subjects were no longer inclined to rally around his standard. He still held out, even when over a million of men, from the different states that he had humbled, were rapidly hemming290 him round and advancing to his capital. Only three hundred and fifty thousand men nominally291 remained to defend his frontiers, while his real effective army amounted to little over one hundred thousand men. A million of his soldiers in eighteen months had perished, and where was he to look for recruits?
On the 31st of December, 1814, fourteen hundred and seven years after the Suevi, Vandals, and Burgundians crossed the Rhine and entered without opposition the defenceless provinces of Gaul, The Allied Powers Invade France. the united Prussians, Austrians, and Russians crossed the same river, and invaded the territories of the modern C?sar. They rapidly advanced towards Paris, and Napoleon went forth176 from his capital to meet them. His cause, however, was now desperate: but he made great exertions, and displayed consummate292 abilities, so that the forces of his enemies were for a time kept at bay. Battles were fought and won by both sides, without decisive results. Slowly, but surely, the allied armies advanced, and gradually surrounded him. By the 30th of March, they were encamped on the heights of Montmartre; and Paris, defenceless and miserable293, surrendered to the conquerors. They now refused to treat with Napoleon, who, a month before, at the conference of Chatillon, might have retained his throne, if he had consented to reign over the territories of France as they were before the Revolution. Napoleon retired294 to Fontainebleau; and, on the 4th of April, he consented to abdicate295 the throne he no longer could defend. His wife returned to her father's protection, and nearly every person of note or consideration abandoned him. On the 11th, he formally abdicated296, and the house of Bourbon was restored. He himself retired to the Island of Elba, but was allowed two million five hundred thousand francs a year, the title of emperor, and four hundred soldiers as his body guard. His farewell address to the soldiers of his old guard, at Fontainebleau, was pathetic and eloquent297. They retained their attachment298 amid general desertion and baseness.
Josephine did not long survive the fall of the hero she had loved, and with whose fortunes her own were mysteriously united. She died on the 28th, and her last hours were soothed299 by the presence of the Emperor Alexander, who promised to take her children under his protection. Of all the great monarchs of his age, he was the most extensively beloved and the most profoundly respected.
The allies showed great magnanimity and moderation after their victory. The monarchy of France was established nearly as it was before the Revolution, and the capital was not rifled of any of its monuments, curiosities, or treasures—not even of those which Napoleon had brought from Italy. Nor was there a military contribution imposed upon the people. The allies did not make war to destroy the kingdom of France, but to dethrone a monarch who had proved himself to be the enemy of mankind. The Peace of Paris. peace of Paris was signed by the plenipotentiaries of France, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, on the 30th of April; and Christendom, at last, indulged the hope that the awful conflict had ended. The Revolution and its offspring Napoleon were apparently300 suppressed, after more than three millions of men had perished in the struggle on the part of France and of her allies alone.
Great changes had taken place in the sentiments of all classes, since the commencement of the contest, twenty years before, and its close excited universal joy. In England, the enthusiasm was unparalleled, and not easy to be conceived. The nation, in its gratitude to Wellington, voted him four hundred thousand pounds, and the highest military triumphs. It also conferred rewards and honors on his principal generals; for his successful operations in Spain were no slight cause of the overthrow of Napoleon.
But scarcely were these rejoicings terminated, before Napoleon escaped from Elba, and again overturned the throne of the Bourbons. The impolitic generosity and almost inconceivable rashness of the allies had enabled Napoleon to carry on extensive intrigues in Paris, and to collect a respectable force on the island of which he was constituted the sovereign; while the unpopularity and impolitic measures of the restored dynasty singularly favored any scheme which Napoleon might have formed. The disbanding of an immense military force, the humiliation of those veterans who still associated with the eagles of Napoleon the glory of France, the derangement301 of the finances, and the discontents of so many people thrown out of employment, naturally prepared the way for the return of the hero of Marengo and Austerlitz.
On the 26th of February, he gave a brilliant ball to the principal people of the island, and embarked the same evening, with eleven hundred troops, to regain302 the sceptre which had been wrested303 from him only by the united powers of Europe. On the Napoleon's Return to France. 1st of March, his vessels304 cast anchor in the Gulf305 of St. Juan, on the coast of Provence; and Napoleon immediately commenced his march, having unfurled the tricolored flag. As he anticipated he was welcomed by the people, and the old cry of "Vive l'Empereur" saluted306 his ears.
The court of the Bourbons made vigorous preparations of resistance, and the armies of France were intrusted to those marshals who owed their elevation to Napoleon. Soult, Ney, Augereau, Massena, Oudinot, all protested devotion to Louis XVIII.; and Ney promised the king speedily to return to Paris with Napoleon in an iron cage. But Ney was among the first to desert the cause of law and legitimacy307, and threw himself into the arms of the emperor. He could not withstand the arts and the eloquence308 of that great hero for whose cause he had so long fought. The defection of the whole army rapidly followed. The king was obliged to fly, and Napoleon took possession of his throne, amid the universal transports of the imperial party in France.
The intelligence of his restoration filled Europe with consternation, rage, and disappointment, and greater preparations were made than ever to subdue a man who respected neither treaties nor the interests of his country. The unparalleled sum of one hundred and ten millions of pounds sterling309 was decreed by the British senate for various purposes, and all the continental powers made proportionate exertions. The genius of Napoleon never blazed so brightly as in preparing for his last desperate conflict with united Christendom; and, considering the exhaustion310 of his country, the forces which he collected were astonishing. Before the beginning of June, two hundred and twenty thousand veteran soldiers were completely armed and equipped; a great proof of the enthusiastic ardor311 which the people felt for Napoleon to the last.
The Duke of Wellington had eighty thousand effective men under his command, and Marshal Blucher one hundred and ten thousand. These forces were to unite, and march to Paris through Flanders. It was arranged that the Austrians and Russians should invade France first, by Befort and Huningen, in order to attract the enemy's principal forces to that quarter.
Napoleon's plan was to collect all his forces into one mass, and boldly to place them between the English and Prussians, and attack them separately. He had under his command one hundred and twenty thousand veteran troops, and therefore, not unreasonably312, expected to combat successfully the one hundred and ninety thousand of the enemy. He forgot, however, that he had to oppose Wellington and Blucher.
On the 18th of June was performed the last sad act of the great tragedy which had for twenty years convulsed Europe with blood and tears. All the combatants on that eventful day understood the nature of the contest, and the importance of the battle. At Battle of Waterloo. Waterloo, Napoleon staked his last throw in the desperate game he had hazarded, and lost it; and was ruined, irrevocably and forever.
Little signified his rapid flight, his attempt to defend Paris, or his readiness to abdicate in favor of his son. The allied powers again, on the 7th of July, entered Paris, and the Bourbon dynasty was restored.
Napoleon retired to Rochefort, hoping to escape his enemies and reach America. It was impossible. He then resolved to throw himself upon the generosity of the English. He was removed to St. Helena, where he no longer stood a chance to become the scourge of the nations. And there, on that lonely island, in the middle of the ocean, guarded most effectually by his enemies, his schemes of conquest ended. He supported his hopeless captivity313 with tolerable equanimity314, showing no signs of remorse315 for the injuries he had inflicted316, but meditating317 profoundly on the mistakes he had committed, and conjecturing318 vainly on the course he might have adopted for the preservation of his power.
How idle were all his conjectures319 and meditations320! His fall was decreed in the councils of Heaven, and no mortal strength could have prevented his overthrow. His mission of blood was ended; and his nation, after its bitter humiliation, was again to enjoy repose. But he did not live in vain. He lived as a messenger of divine vengeance to chastise321 the objects of divine indignation. He lived to show to the world what a splendid prize human energy could win; and yet to show how vain, after all, was military glory, and how worthless is the enjoyment322 of any victory purchased by the sufferings of mankind. He lived to point the melancholy323 moral, that war, for its own sake, is a delusion324, a mockery, and a snare325, and that the greater the elevation to which unlawful ambition can raise a man, the greater will be his subsequent humiliation; that "pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall."
The Reflections on Napoleon's Fall. allied sovereigns of Europe insisted on the restoration of the works of art which Napoleon had pillaged326. "The bronzed horses, brought from Corinth to Rome, again resumed their old station in the front of the Church of St. Mark; the Transfiguration was restored to the Vatican; the Apollo and the Laocoon again adorned327 St. Peter's; the Venus was enshrined with new beauty at Florence; and the Descent from the Cross was replaced in the Cathedral of Antwerp." By the treaty which restored peace to Europe for a generation, the old dominions of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, Holland, and Italy were restored, and the Bourbons again reigned328 over the ancient provinces of France. Popular liberty on the continent of Europe was entombed, and the dreams of revolutionists were unrealized; but suffering proved a beneficial ordeal329, and prepared the nations of Europe to appreciate, more than ever, the benefits and blessings of peace.
References.—The most complete work, on the whole, though full of faults, and very heavy and prosaic330, is Alison's History of the French Revolution. Scott's Life of Napoleon was too hastily written, and has many mistakes. No English author has done full justice to Napoleon. Thiers's Histories are invaluable331. Napier's History of the Peninsula War is masterly. Wellington's Despatches are indispensable only to a student. Botta's History of Italy under Napoleon. Dodsley's Annual Register. Labaume's Russian Campaign. Southey's Peninsular War. Liborne's Waterloo Campaign. Southey's Life of Nelson. Sherer's Life of the Duke of Wellington. Gifford's Life of Pitt. Moore's Life of Sir John Moore. James's Naval History. Memoirs332 of the Duchess d'Abrantes. Berthier's Histoire de l'Expédition d'égypte. Schlosser's Modern History. The above works are the most accessible, but form but a small part of those which have appeared concerning the French Revolution and the career of Napoleon. For a complete list of original authorities, see the preface of Alison, and the references of Thiers.
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1
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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preposterous
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| adj.荒谬的，可笑的 | |
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strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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pillage
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| v.抢劫；掠夺；n.抢劫，掠夺；掠夺物 | |
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misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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doom
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| n.厄运，劫数；v.注定，命定 | |
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warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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almighty
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| adj.全能的，万能的；很大的，很强的 | |
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scourge
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| n.灾难，祸害；v.蹂躏 | |
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blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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contemplate
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| vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视 | |
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usurper
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| n. 篡夺者, 僭取者 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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rue
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| n.懊悔，芸香，后悔；v.后悔，悲伤，懊悔 | |
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conquerors
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| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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lawful
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| adj.法律许可的，守法的，合法的 | |
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inordinate
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| adj.无节制的；过度的 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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deluged
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| v.使淹没( deluge的过去式和过去分词 )；淹没；被洪水般涌来的事物所淹没；穷于应付 | |
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aspired
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| v.渴望，追求( aspire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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hurled
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| v.猛投，用力掷( hurl的过去式和过去分词 )；大声叫骂 | |
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grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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trophies
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| n.（为竞赛获胜者颁发的）奖品( trophy的名词复数 )；奖杯；（尤指狩猎或战争中获得的）纪念品；（用于比赛或赛跑名称）奖 | |
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providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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recital
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| n.朗诵，独奏会，独唱会 | |
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iniquity
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| n.邪恶；不公正 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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edifice
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| n.宏伟的建筑物(如宫殿，教室) | |
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majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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analyze
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| vt.分析，解析 (=analyse) | |
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42
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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adorn
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| vt.使美化，装饰 | |
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narratives
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| 记叙文( narrative的名词复数 )； 故事； 叙述； 叙述部分 | |
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tyrants
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| 专制统治者( tyrant的名词复数 )； 暴君似的人； （古希腊的）僭主； 严酷的事物 | |
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48
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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49
attainments
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| 成就，造诣； 获得( attainment的名词复数 )； 达到； 造诣； 成就 | |
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50
inflexible
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| adj.不可改变的，不受影响的，不屈服的 | |
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51
lieutenant
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| n.陆军中尉，海军上尉；代理官员，副职官员 | |
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52
regiment
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| n.团，多数，管理；v.组织，编成团，统制 | |
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53
artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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54
arsenals
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| n.兵工厂，军火库( arsenal的名词复数 )；任何事物的集成 | |
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55
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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56
subdue
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| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
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57
rebellious
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| adj.造反的，反抗的，难控制的 | |
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58
incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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59
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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60
exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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61
torrent
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| n.激流，洪流；爆发，(话语等的)连发 | |
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62
elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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63
accomplishments
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| n.造诣；完成( accomplishment的名词复数 )；技能；成绩；成就 | |
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64
inured
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| adj.坚强的，习惯的 | |
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65
toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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66
precedent
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| n.先例，前例；惯例；adj.在前的，在先的 | |
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67
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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68
license
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| n.执照，许可证，特许；v.许可，特许 | |
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subduing
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| 征服( subdue的现在分词 )； 克制； 制服； 色变暗 | |
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70
arrears
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| n.到期未付之债，拖欠的款项；待做的工作 | |
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71
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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72
infantry
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| n.[总称]步兵(部队) | |
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73
depressed
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| adj.沮丧的，抑郁的，不景气的，萧条的 | |
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74
assailed
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| v.攻击( assail的过去式和过去分词 )；困扰；质问；毅然应对 | |
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75
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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76
folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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80
interfered
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| v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉 | |
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81
taxation
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| n.征税，税收，税金 | |
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82
frigates
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| n.快速军舰( frigate的名词复数 ) | |
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83
sloops
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| n.单桅纵帆船( sloop的名词复数 ) | |
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84
memorable
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| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
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concession
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| n.让步，妥协；特许(权) | |
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grievances
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| n.委屈( grievance的名词复数 )；苦衷；不满；牢骚 | |
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candidly
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| adv.坦率地，直率而诚恳地 | |
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promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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redressed
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| v.改正( redress的过去式和过去分词 )；重加权衡；恢复平衡 | |
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cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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groaning
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| adj. 呜咽的, 呻吟的 动词groan的现在分词形式 | |
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diffused
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| 散布的，普及的，扩散的 | |
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ministry
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| n.(政府的)部；牧师 | |
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persevere
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| v.坚持，坚忍，不屈不挠 | |
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victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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declivity
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| n.下坡，倾斜面 | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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dictating
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| v.大声讲或读( dictate的现在分词 )；口授；支配；摆布 | |
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100
contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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101
advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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103
subjugation
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| n.镇压，平息，征服 | |
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104
degenerate
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| v.退步，堕落；adj.退步的，堕落的；n.堕落者 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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negotiations
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| 协商( negotiation的名词复数 )； 谈判； 完成（难事）； 通过 | |
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108
avert
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| v.防止，避免；转移(目光、注意力等) | |
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109
chateau
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| n.城堡，别墅 | |
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dictated
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| v.大声讲或读( dictate的过去式和过去分词 )；口授；支配；摆布 | |
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perfidy
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| n.背信弃义，不忠贞 | |
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112
despoiled
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| v.掠夺，抢劫( despoil的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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113
portico
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| n.柱廊，门廊 | |
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114
commemorate
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| vt.纪念，庆祝 | |
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115
boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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116
repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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embarked
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| 乘船( embark的过去式和过去分词 )； 装载； 从事 | |
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118
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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119
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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120
prosecute
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| vt.告发；进行；vi.告发，起诉，作检察官 | |
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121
garrison
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| n.卫戍部队；驻地，卫戍区；vt.派(兵)驻防 | |
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122
deterred
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| v.阻止，制止( deter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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123
fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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124
succored
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| v.给予帮助( succor的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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125
discomfited
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| v.使为难( discomfit的过去式和过去分词)；使狼狈；使挫折；挫败 | |
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126
miseries
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| n.痛苦( misery的名词复数 )；痛苦的事；穷困；常发牢骚的人 | |
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127
fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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128
inflict
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| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
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129
calamities
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| n.灾祸，灾难( calamity的名词复数 )；不幸之事 | |
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130
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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131
outrage
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| n.暴行，侮辱，愤怒；vt.凌辱，激怒 | |
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132
indignities
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| n.侮辱，轻蔑( indignity的名词复数 ) | |
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133
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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134
frescoes
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| n.壁画( fresco的名词复数 )；温壁画技法，湿壁画 | |
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135
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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136
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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137
dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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138
levied
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| 征（兵）( levy的过去式和过去分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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139
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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140
dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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141
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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142
concurred
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| 同意（concur的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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143
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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144
implicit
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| a.暗示的，含蓄的，不明晰的，绝对的 | |
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145
intrigued
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| adj.好奇的，被迷住了的v.搞阴谋诡计(intrigue的过去式)；激起…的兴趣或好奇心；“intrigue”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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146
reins
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| 感情，激情； 缰( rein的名词复数 )； 控制手段； 掌管； （成人带着幼儿走路以防其走失时用的）保护带 | |
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147
consul
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| n.领事；执政官 | |
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148
legislative
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| n.立法机构，立法权；adj.立法的，有立法权的 | |
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149
clemency
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| n.温和，仁慈，宽厚 | |
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150
portfolio
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| n.公事包；文件夹；大臣及部长职位 | |
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151
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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152
consulate
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| n.领事馆 | |
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153
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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154
benevolence
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| n.慈悲，捐助 | |
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155
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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156
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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157
aggression
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| n.进攻，侵略，侵犯，侵害 | |
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158
agitation
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| n.搅动；搅拌；鼓动，煽动 | |
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159
militia
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| n.民兵，民兵组织 | |
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160
seamen
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| n.海员 | |
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161
contingent
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| adj.视条件而定的；n.一组，代表团，分遣队 | |
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162
subsidies
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| n.补贴，津贴，补助金( subsidy的名词复数 ) | |
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163
treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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164
exemption
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| n.豁免，免税额，免除 | |
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165
hostilities
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| n.战争；敌意(hostility的复数)；敌对状态；战事 | |
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166
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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167
revoked
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| adj.[法]取消的v.撤销，取消，废除( revoke的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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168
banishment
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| n.放逐，驱逐 | |
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169
maritime
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| adj.海的，海事的，航海的，近海的，沿海的 | |
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170
feats
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| 功绩，伟业，技艺( feat的名词复数 ) | |
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171
obstinately
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| ad.固执地，顽固地 | |
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172
ceded
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| v.让给，割让，放弃( cede的过去式 ) | |
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173
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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174
continental
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| adj.大陆的，大陆性的，欧洲大陆的 | |
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175
assassination
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| n.暗杀；暗杀事件 | |
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176
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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177
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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178
obnoxious
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| adj.极恼人的，讨人厌的，可憎的 | |
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179
pretence
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| n.假装，作假；借口，口实；虚伪；虚饰 | |
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180
bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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181
proprietors
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| n.所有人，业主( proprietor的名词复数 ) | |
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182
emigrants
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| n.（从本国移往他国的）移民( emigrant的名词复数 ) | |
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183
monarchical
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| adj. 国王的，帝王的，君主的，拥护君主制的 =monarchic | |
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184
compilation
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| n.编译，编辑 | |
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185
undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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186
undertakings
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| 企业( undertaking的名词复数 )； 保证； 殡仪业； 任务 | |
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187
conspiracy
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| n.阴谋，密谋，共谋 | |
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188
consular
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| a.领事的 | |
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189
scion
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| n.嫩芽，子孙 | |
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190
coveted
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| adj.令人垂涎的；垂涎的，梦寐以求的v.贪求，觊觎(covet的过去分词)；垂涎；贪图 | |
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191
usurpation
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| n.篡位；霸占 | |
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192
alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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193
coalition
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| n.结合体，同盟，结合，联合 | |
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194
usurped
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| 篡夺，霸占( usurp的过去式和过去分词 )； 盗用； 篡夺，篡权 | |
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195
belligerent
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| adj.好战的，挑起战争的；n.交战国，交战者 | |
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196
meditated
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| 深思，沉思，冥想( meditate的过去式和过去分词 )； 内心策划，考虑 | |
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197
cannon
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| n.大炮，火炮；飞机上的机关炮 | |
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198
fathomed
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| 理解…的真意( fathom的过去式和过去分词 )； 彻底了解； 弄清真相 | |
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199
imminent
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| adj.即将发生的，临近的，逼近的 | |
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200
dreaded
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| adj.令人畏惧的；害怕的v.害怕，恐惧，担心( dread的过去式和过去分词) | |
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201
frustrated
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| adj.挫败的，失意的，泄气的v.使不成功( frustrate的过去式和过去分词 )；挫败；使受挫折；令人沮丧 | |
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202
corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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203
exultation
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| n.狂喜，得意 | |
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204
pervaded
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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205
gratitude
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| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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206
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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207
countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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208
consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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209
defensive
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| adj.防御的；防卫的；防守的 | |
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210
lustre
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| n.光亮，光泽；荣誉 | |
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211
irresistible
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| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
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212
humbled
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| adj. 卑下的，谦逊的，粗陋的 vt. 使 ... 卑下，贬低 | |
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213
consolidated
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| a.联合的 | |
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214
allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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215
disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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216
devouring
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| 吞没( devour的现在分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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217
delirium
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| n. 神智昏迷,说胡话;极度兴奋 | |
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218
quenched
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| 解（渴）( quench的过去式和过去分词 )； 终止（某事物）； （用水）扑灭（火焰等）； 将（热物体）放入水中急速冷却 | |
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219
exclamation
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| n.感叹号，惊呼，惊叹词 | |
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220
alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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221
humiliation
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| n.羞辱 | |
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222
prostrated
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| v.使俯伏，使拜倒( prostrate的过去式和过去分词 )；（指疾病、天气等）使某人无能为力 | |
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223
monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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224
coalitions
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| 结合体，同盟( coalition的名词复数 )； （两党或多党）联合政府 | |
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225
monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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226
suppliant
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| adj.哀恳的；n.恳求者，哀求者 | |
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227
haughty
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| adj.傲慢的，高傲的 | |
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228
aggrandizes
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| v.扩大某人的权力( aggrandize的第三人称单数 )；提高某人的地位；夸大；吹捧 | |
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229
ratified
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| v.批准，签认（合约等）( ratify的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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230
intrigues
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| n.密谋策划( intrigue的名词复数 )；神秘气氛；引人入胜的复杂情节v.搞阴谋诡计( intrigue的第三人称单数 )；激起…的好奇心 | |
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231
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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232
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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233
obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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234
splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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235
emanated
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| v.从…处传出，传出( emanate的过去式和过去分词 )；产生，表现，显示 | |
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236
judicial
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| adj.司法的，法庭的，审判的，明断的，公正的 | |
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237
fictitious
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| adj.虚构的，假设的；空头的 | |
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238
perpetuate
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| v.使永存，使永记不忘 | |
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239
etiquette
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| n.礼仪，礼节；规矩 | |
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240
conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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241
animated
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| adj.生气勃勃的，活跃的，愉快的 | |
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242
mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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243
aggrandizement
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| n.增大，强化，扩大 | |
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244
mediator
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| n.调解人，中介人 | |
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245
monarchies
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| n. 君主政体, 君主国, 君主政治 | |
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246
juntas
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| n.以武力政变上台的军阀( junta的名词复数 ) | |
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247
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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248
exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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249
revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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250
anguish
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| n.(尤指心灵上的)极度痛苦，烦恼 | |
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251
modesty
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| n.谦逊，虚心，端庄，稳重，羞怯，朴素 | |
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252
prosecuted
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| a.被起诉的 | |
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253
bloodiest
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| adj.血污的( bloody的最高级 )；流血的；屠杀的；残忍的 | |
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254
triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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255
totter
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| v.蹒跚， 摇摇欲坠；n.蹒跚的步子 | |
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256
dissuaded
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| 劝（某人）勿做某事，劝阻( dissuade的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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257
assailing
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| v.攻击( assail的现在分词 )；困扰；质问；毅然应对 | |
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258
permanently
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| adv.永恒地，永久地，固定不变地 | |
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259
aggrandized
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| v.扩大某人的权力( aggrandize的过去式和过去分词 )；提高某人的地位；夸大；吹捧 | |
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260
imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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261
deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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262
enveloped
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| v.包围，笼罩，包住( envelop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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263
consternation
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| n.大为吃惊，惊骇 | |
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264
conflagration
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| n.建筑物或森林大火 | |
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265
execration
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| n.诅咒，念咒，憎恶 | |
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266
vengeance
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| n.报复，报仇，复仇 | |
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267
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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268
submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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269
desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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270
harassed
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| adj. 疲倦的，厌烦的 动词harass的过去式和过去分词 | |
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271
strewed
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| v.撒在…上( strew的过去式和过去分词 )；散落于；点缀；撒满 | |
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272
rout
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| n.溃退，溃败；v.击溃，打垮 | |
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273
famished
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| adj.饥饿的 | |
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274
preyed
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| v.掠食( prey的过去式和过去分词 )；掠食；折磨；（人）靠欺诈为生 | |
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275
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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276
forage
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| n.(牛马的)饲料，粮草；v.搜寻，翻寻 | |
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277
appalled
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| v.使惊骇，使充满恐惧( appall的过去式和过去分词)adj.惊骇的；丧胆的 | |
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278
overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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279
calamity
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| n.灾害，祸患，不幸事件 | |
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280
veneration
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| n.尊敬，崇拜 | |
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281
ignominious
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| adj.可鄙的，不光彩的，耻辱的 | |
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282
yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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283
prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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284
licentiousness
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| n.放肆，无法无天 | |
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285
antagonism
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| n.对抗，敌对，对立 | |
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286
discomfiture
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| n.崩溃；大败；挫败；困惑 | |
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287
fortresses
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| 堡垒，要塞( fortress的名词复数 ) | |
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288
margin
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| n.页边空白；差额；余地，余裕；边，边缘 | |
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289
mightiest
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| adj.趾高气扬( mighty的最高级 )；巨大的；强有力的；浩瀚的 | |
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290
hemming
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| 卷边 | |
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291
nominally
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| 在名义上，表面地； 应名儿 | |
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292
consummate
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| adj.完美的；v.成婚；使完美 [反]baffle | |
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293
miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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294
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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295
abdicate
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| v.让位，辞职，放弃 | |
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296
abdicated
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| 放弃（职责、权力等）( abdicate的过去式和过去分词 )； 退位，逊位 | |
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297
eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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298
attachment
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| n.附属物，附件；依恋；依附 | |
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299
soothed
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| v.安慰( soothe的过去式和过去分词 )；抚慰；使舒服；减轻痛苦 | |
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300
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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301
derangement
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| n.精神错乱 | |
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302
regain
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| vt.重新获得，收复，恢复 | |
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303
wrested
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| （用力）拧( wrest的过去式和过去分词 )； 费力取得； （从…）攫取； （ 从… ） 强行取去… | |
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304
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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305
gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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306
saluted
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| v.欢迎，致敬( salute的过去式和过去分词 )；赞扬，赞颂 | |
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307
legitimacy
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| n.合法，正当 | |
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308
eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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309
sterling
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| adj.英币的(纯粹的，货真价实的)；n.英国货币(英镑) | |
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310
exhaustion
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| n.耗尽枯竭，疲惫，筋疲力尽，竭尽，详尽无遗的论述 | |
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311
ardor
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| n.热情，狂热 | |
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312
unreasonably
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| adv. 不合理地 | |
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313
captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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314
equanimity
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| n.沉着，镇定 | |
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315
remorse
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| n.痛恨，悔恨，自责 | |
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316
inflicted
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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317
meditating
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| a.沉思的，冥想的 | |
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318
conjecturing
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| v. & n. 推测，臆测 | |
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319
conjectures
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| 推测，猜想( conjecture的名词复数 ) | |
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320
meditations
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| 默想( meditation的名词复数 )； 默念； 沉思； 冥想 | |
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321
chastise
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| vt.责骂，严惩 | |
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322
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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323
melancholy
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| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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324
delusion
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| n.谬见，欺骗，幻觉，迷惑 | |
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325
snare
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| n.陷阱，诱惑，圈套；（去除息肉或者肿瘤的）勒除器；响弦，小军鼓；vt.以陷阱捕获，诱惑 | |
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326
pillaged
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| v.抢劫，掠夺( pillage的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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327
adorned
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| [计]被修饰的 | |
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328
reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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329
ordeal
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| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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330
prosaic
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| adj.单调的，无趣的 | |
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331
invaluable
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| adj.无价的，非常宝贵的，极为贵重的 | |
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332
memoirs
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| n.回忆录；回忆录传( mem,自oir的名词复数) | |
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