To put it familiarly, the youthful Wagner had been obviously shaping for some years for a bad attack of musical measles15; he had to get it out of his system, and Rienzi was the illness that enabled him to do so. To me it is the least satisfactory of all his works—far less enjoyable than Die Feen or Das Liebesverbot. One can forgive the eager young-mannishness of these very youthful works: but at twenty-six or twenty-seven one expects a composer to show more indubitable signs of originality16. The commonplace of Rienzi is different from that of the preceding operas; it is almost an offensive commonplace; the outlines of the objectionable phrases have all been thickened and the body of them puffed17 out till they positively18 irritate us by their grossness and fatuousness19. It is astounding20 how few phrases there are in all these six hundred pages[399] that really seize upon us: we could easily count them all on the fingers of one hand. On its harmonic side the opera gives us a strange impression of pretentious21 poverty. All through Rienzi Wagner's mind seems to be struggling to fight its way through vapour and murk to the light. His dramatic intentions are evident enough, but he can rarely realise them. It is in vain that he exploits all the formulas for dramatic expression as they were understood at that time—diminished sevenths for horror, syncopations for agitation22, and all the rest of it; in vain that he languishes23 or threatens, warbles unctuously24 or declaims aggressively, lets loose his noisy orchestra and piles up massive choral effects; they all fail to move us because there is hardly ever any bite in the phrases themselves. The obvious faults of the work are due not so much to technical inexperience or limitations of vocabulary as to a sheer failure of the imagination; with the possible exception of Rienzi himself, not one of the characters has been seen with vividness enough to wring25 a really characteristic musical symbol out of the composer. No one lives except Rienzi; and he, as far as his music is concerned, is little more than half alive. Any critically-minded contemporary friend of Wagner's who happened to know all his work up to that time might have been pardoned for thinking, on the basis of Rienzi, that the composer was deteriorating27, that on the whole his imagination had hardly grown at all during the past couple of years, and that none of the earlier defects of style had been corrected, while half a dozen new ones had been added—an intolerable prolixity28, a tendency to rely on elephantine effects to the neglect of finely wrought29 detail, and to trust to stage mechanism30 to eke31 out the weaknesses of his musical invention. The only improvement on the earlier Wagner that the friend would have been able to observe in Rienzi would be that in spite of all its absurdities32 and infelicities, its commonness and elephantiasis, there is a new strength in the work. It is a strength clumsily used; the youthful hobbledehoy's limbs have hardened without his acquiring much more command over them than he had before, the boyish voice has gained in volume without much improvement in quality: but the general signs of muscular growth are unmistakable. Crude as the overture33 is, no one can deny its rampant34, horse-power vigour35. But the final convincing proof that though Wagner's voice was abnormally energetic in Rienzi his imagination was virtually at a standstill is the fact that the opera has no colour, no atmosphere of its own. Every other work of Wagner has. In Die Feen, as Mr. Runciman acutely points out, there is a strange new feeling for light; in the Flying Dutchman we are always conscious of the sea, in Tannh?user of a world of sensuous36 heat set over against a world of moral coolness and rather an?mic aspiration37, in Lohengrin of the gleaming river and the tenuous38 air of Monsalvat. Rienzi conveys no pictorial39 or atmospheric40 suggestions of any kind.
But the opera was only a reculer pour mieux sauter. He needed a text that should be more purely41 musical in its essence than this; and when he found it, in the Flying Dutchman—the idea of which came to him shortly after he had commenced work on Rienzi—his genius took its first decisive leap forward. For some years he had been strangely undecided as to a suitable subject for an opera. He had experimented, and was still to experiment, in several fields. In 1836 he had turned K?nig's novel Die hohe Braut into a libretto42, making quite a good romantic opera in four acts out of it.[400] (It was afterwards set by Joseph Kittl, in 1853, under the title of Bianca und Giuseppe, oder die Franzosen vor Nizza.) In 1837 he made a comic opera out of a story in the Arabian Nights, entitling it Die glückliche B?renfamilie, oder M?nnerlist gr?sser als Frauenlist ("The Happy Bear Family, or Woman outwitted by Man"). This is a delightfully43 vivacious45 little libretto, which might well be set by some modern composer. Wagner wrote some fragments of the music for it, but quickly became disgusted with the style, and turned his back on the piece. In Paris in 1841 he made a preliminary prose sketch46 for a libretto on a gloomy and rather striking subject of Hoffmann's, Die Bergwerke zu Falun ("The Mines of Falun"), which one is sorry he did not set to music, for it has colour and a certain individuality: he would probably have made more of it than he did of Rienzi. But perhaps he felt that the sombre vein47 he would have had to pursue in Die Bergwerke zu Falun had been worked out to the full extent of which he was capable in the Flying Dutchman. In the same winter of 1842 he made a first sketch of Die Sarazenin ("The Saracen Woman"), expanding it in Dresden two years later.
It was after all a sound instinct, no doubt, that made him concentrate on the Flying Dutchman and let the other schemes drop, for the Flying Dutchman gave him just what Rienzi did not—a concentrated dramatic theme, and one with a very individual atmosphere. Had his dramatic and musical technique been more advanced than they were at that time he would probably have condensed the story still further. He saw clearly enough that the whole essence of the legend—or at any rate the whole of the musical essence of it—lay in the Dutchman and Senta, and that all the rest was mere5 scaffolding or trimming. "I condensed the material into a single Act, being chiefly moved to do this by the subject itself, since in this way I could compress it into the simple dramatic interaction of the principal characters, and ignore the musical accessories that had now become repellent to me."[402] But his musical faculties48, which developed with a strange slowness, were still lagging a good deal behind his dramatic perceptions; and the result is that to us to-day there seem to be a good many superfluous49 "musical accessories" in the Flying Dutchman, owing to the fact that Wagner has not been able to give real musical life to such characters as Daland and Erik. He himself has described for us very lucidly50 in A Communication to My Friends the diverging51 impulses in him that gave the Flying Dutchman its present only partly satisfactory form. He was wholly possessed52 by his subject, saw that it was necessary to allow it to dictate53 its own musical form and method of treatment, and honestly thought that he had let it do so; but the traditional operatic form was more potent54 within him than he imagined at the time. As in Rienzi, aria9, duet, trio and the other established forms somehow "found their way into" the opera without his consciously willing them.
Still the structure of the Flying Dutchman is a great advance on that of Rienzi: what was really happening was that the musician in Wagner was beginning to see that the whole drama must be musical drama, the poet not being allowed to insert anything that was inconsistent with the spirit of music. He himself persisted in putting it the other way,—that the poet in him gradually took over the guidance of the musician. But we can see now that he misread his own evolution. The poet in him undoubtedly55 outgrew56, bit by bit, the musical forms that had become stereotyped57 in the opera of the day; but the poet's growth only became possible when the musician, beginning to feel his own strength, gave the poet more and more imperative58 orders to shape his "stuff" in a form that would afford the musician the freest course. Wagner in later years insisted that after he had elaborated Senta's ballad59 in the second Act, he found that he had unconsciously hit upon the thematic kernel60 of the whole, and that this thematic idea then spread itself naturally over the whole drama like a network. That is not true if we take his words literally61, for of course a good deal of the thematic material of the Flying Dutchman has no affiliation62 with Senta's ballad. But in the broad sense, and with regard more to his intentions than his achievements, we can see that he was right. The whole drama really emanates63 from Senta; the Dutchman himself, as Mr. Runciman puts it, is merely Senta's opportunity personified; the remaining characters are only there to make the before and after of the central episode clear. With more experience and a surer technique he could have cut away more of the excrescences of the libretto and concentrated the action still further, making it yet more purely musical, as he did with Tristan. But for the day he did marvellously well. With the Flying Dutchman was born the modern musical drama.
There is no mistaking the intensity64 and certainty of his vision now. He no longer describes his characters from the outside: they are within him, making their own language and using him as their unconscious instrument. The portrait painter and the pictorial artist in him are both coming to maturity65. The Dutchman and Senta are both drawn66 completely in the round; we feel, for the first time with any of Wagner's characters, that we might meet them any day and that they would be solid to the touch. Even Daland and Erik, though not as real as the other two—for Wagner had not yet the art of breathing life into every one of his subordinate characters—have a certain substantiality. And roaring and whistling and surging round them all is the sea,—not so much the mere background of the drama as the element that has given it birth. Stylistically and technically67 the new work is leagues beyond Rienzi. There is still something of the old melodic68 mannerism—which, indeed, he was not to lose for many years yet—but in many of the melodies there is a new leap, a new swing, a new articulation69; harmonically the work is richer; it often attains70 a rhythmic71 freedom beyond anything that Wagner had been capable of before; he is learning to concentrate his expression, and to beat out pregnant little figures that limn72 a character or depict73 a natural force once for all; there is a new psychological as well as a musical logic12, binding74 the whole scheme together and working up from the beginning to the end in one steady crescendo75. Wherever the score is tested, it shows something not to be met with hitherto either in Wagner's previous work or in that of his contemporaries. His imagination is at last unlocked.
After this he develops steadily76 and rapidly until a fresh check is given him, it being borne in upon him that neither his imagination nor his technique is equal to the creation of the new world that he feels stirring vaguely77 within him. But for a time all goes well. The Flying Dutchman had been finished in the winter of 1841. Tannh?user was fully44 ready by April 1845, and Lohengrin by March 1848—just after he had completed his thirty-fifth year. In these seven years he exhausted78 all the possibilities of the style he had made his own; after Lohengrin he instinctively79 feels that he is at the end of the one path and the beginning of a new one, though where this is to lead him he has as yet no inkling. Both the later operas represent a gradual clarification and intensification80 of the style he had tentatively used in the Flying Dutchman. The breach81 with the older opera is even yet not complete; disguise the conventional features of it as he will, they are still recognisable; aria and duet and ensemble82 are still there, though they merge83 almost imperceptibly into each other. But if Tannh?user and Lohengrin are in large part still the old opera, they are the old opera transfigured. The musical web spreads itself more and more broadly over the whole poetic84 material. Recitative virtually disappears; the text still retains a number of non-emotional moments for which no really lyrical equivalent can be found, but what would have been recitative naked and unashamed in Rienzi is now almost fully-clothed song—the address of the Landgrave to the Knights85 in the Hall of Song scene is an excellent illustration. The choral writing attains an unaccustomed breadth and sonority86, and at the same time the chorus becomes a more efficient psychological instrument. The harmonic tissue becomes fuller. The melodic line becomes more and more expressive87 and sensitive. The orchestration begins to give a distinctive88 colour to both personages and scenes. A very ardent89 and penetrating90 imagination, the imagination of the born dramatist, seeing all his characters as creatures of flesh and blood, is now playing upon the material offered to the musician by the poet. Each scene suggests by its colouring its own indoor or outdoor setting, the hour of the day, the time of the year; yet each opera as a whole has a different light and is set in a different atmosphere from the others. The Wagner of this period reaches the supreme91 height of his powers in Lohengrin; and as one watches that diaphanous92 and finely-spun melodic web unfold itself, one is almost tempted93 for the moment to regret that the d?mon within him drove him on so relentlessly94 to another style. No one, of course, can be anything but thankful that Wagner evolved the splendid symphonic-operatic style of the second half of his life—the most serviceable operatic instrument that any musician has yet hit upon. But the more purely lyrical style of Lohengrin is so exquisitely95 satisfying in itself that one would have been grateful had he turned back to it for a moment in later days, when his melodic invention was in its fullest glory. The main burden of the expression, in the later work, shifts more and more to the side of the orchestra. In Lohengrin the voice is still the statue and the orchestra the pedestal. The whole work is the product of that equipoise of all the faculties that is often observable in composers at the end of their second period, a serenity96 resting upon their music that it never wins again in the more troubled after-years, when the soul is more at war with itself, and the lips can hardly find language for the pregnant images that crowd to them.
But vast as the imaginative growth had been from Rienzi to Lohengrin, it seems almost like a mere marking time in comparison with the subsequent development. Most instructive in this respect are the alterations97 Wagner made in his earlier works in later life. The Flying Dutchman ends with the destruction of the Dutchman's ship as Senta leaps into the sea. The stage directions in the first edition run thus: "In the glow of the setting sun the glorified98 forms of the Dutchman and Senta are seen rising above the wreck99, clasped in each other's arms, soaring heavenward"; and the final page of the opera in its original form consisted of the "Redemption" motive100 followed by the motive of the Dutchman, the opera ending with the latter. When Wagner revised the work some years later, he was conscious of the abruptness101 and inconclusiveness of this ending. His pictorial imagination saw the transfigured forms of Senta and the Dutchman more vividly102, and the more luminous103 vision found expression in the great stroke of genius with which the opera as we now have it ends. The thundering theme of the Dutchman no longer has the last word; the fortissimo swell104 of the full orchestra suddenly breaks, and in a slower tempo26 there steals out in the soft, pure tones of the wood-wind and harps105 the theme of "Redemption" in the form it first assumes in Senta's ballad, but with an unexpected heavenward ascent106 in the violins at the finish—
The effect is precisely107 as if the clouds had parted, and the figures of the Dutchman and Senta were seen soaring aloft in their purified and transfigured form.
As the first version of the Faust Overture (1840) has not been published, it is impossible to compare it with the version we now have, which was made in 1855; but we may be certain that the comparison would prove as interesting as that between the earlier and the later versions of the Flying Dutchman finale. But the new Venusberg music that he wrote for the Paris production of Tannh?user (1861) shows as emphatically as the altered Flying Dutchman ending how immeasurably greater than all his development from Die Feen to Lohengrin was the development from Lohengrin to Tristan—for it was in the Tristan period that he made this wonderful addition to Tannh?user, the effect of which is to make the remainder of the score seem almost cold in comparison, a pale moon against a fiery108 sun. Had Wagner died after Lohengrin he would still have been the greatest operatic composer of his time. But the work of the later years is so stupendous in every respect, imaginative, inventive, and technical, that even Lohengrin seems hardly to be the product of the same mind.
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1
theatrical
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| adj.剧场的，演戏的；做戏似的，做作的 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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deliberately
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| adv.审慎地；蓄意地；故意地 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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genre
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| n.(文学、艺术等的)类型，体裁，风格 | |
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prodigality
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| n.浪费，挥霍 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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aria
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| n.独唱曲，咏叹调 | |
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arias
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| n.咏叹调( aria的名词复数 ) | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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attainments
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| 成就，造诣； 获得( attainment的名词复数 )； 达到； 造诣； 成就 | |
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epoch
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| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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measles
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| n.麻疹，风疹，包虫病，痧子 | |
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originality
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| n.创造力，独创性；新颖 | |
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puffed
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| adj.疏松的v.使喷出( puff的过去式和过去分词 )；喷着汽（或烟）移动；吹嘘；吹捧 | |
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positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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fatuousness
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| n.愚昧，昏庸，蠢 | |
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astounding
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| adj.使人震惊的vt.使震惊，使大吃一惊astound的现在分词) | |
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pretentious
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| adj.自命不凡的，自负的，炫耀的 | |
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agitation
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| n.搅动；搅拌；鼓动，煽动 | |
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languishes
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| 长期受苦( languish的第三人称单数 )； 受折磨； 变得（越来越）衰弱； 因渴望而变得憔悴或闷闷不乐 | |
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unctuously
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| adv.油腻地，油腔滑调地；假惺惺 | |
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wring
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| n.扭绞；v.拧，绞出，扭 | |
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tempo
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| n.(音乐的)速度；节奏，行进速度 | |
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deteriorating
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| 恶化，变坏( deteriorate的现在分词 ) | |
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prolixity
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| n.冗长，罗嗦 | |
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wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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eke
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| v.勉强度日，节约使用 | |
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absurdities
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| n.极端无理性( absurdity的名词复数 )；荒谬；谬论；荒谬的行为 | |
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overture
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| n.前奏曲、序曲，提议，提案，初步交涉 | |
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rampant
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| adj.(植物)蔓生的；狂暴的，无约束的 | |
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vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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sensuous
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| adj.激发美感的；感官的，感觉上的 | |
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aspiration
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| n.志向，志趣抱负；渴望；(语)送气音；吸出 | |
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tenuous
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| adj.细薄的，稀薄的，空洞的 | |
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pictorial
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| adj.绘画的；图片的；n．画报 | |
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atmospheric
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| adj.大气的，空气的；大气层的；大气所引起的 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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libretto
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| n.歌剧剧本，歌曲歌词 | |
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delightfully
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| 大喜，欣然 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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vivacious
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| adj.活泼的，快活的 | |
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sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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47
vein
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| n.血管，静脉；叶脉，纹理；情绪；vt.使成脉络 | |
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48
faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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49
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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lucidly
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| adv.清透地，透明地 | |
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51
diverging
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| 分开( diverge的现在分词 )； 偏离； 分歧； 分道扬镳 | |
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52
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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53
dictate
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| v.口授；(使)听写；指令，指示，命令 | |
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potent
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| adj.强有力的，有权势的；有效力的 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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56
outgrew
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| 长[发展] 得超过（某物）的范围( outgrow的过去式 )； 长[发展]得不能再要（某物）； 长得比…快； 生长速度超过 | |
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57
stereotyped
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| adj.(指形象、思想、人物等)模式化的 | |
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imperative
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| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
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ballad
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| n.歌谣，民谣，流行爱情歌曲 | |
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kernel
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| n.(果实的)核，仁；(问题)的中心，核心 | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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affiliation
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| n.联系，联合 | |
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emanates
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| v.从…处传出，传出( emanate的第三人称单数 )；产生，表现，显示 | |
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intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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maturity
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| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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technically
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| adv.专门地，技术上地 | |
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melodic
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| adj.有旋律的，调子美妙的 | |
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articulation
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| n.（清楚的）发音；清晰度，咬合 | |
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70
attains
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的第三人称单数 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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rhythmic
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| adj.有节奏的，有韵律的 | |
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72
limn
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| v.描画；描述 | |
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depict
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| vt.描画，描绘；描写，描述 | |
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binding
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| 有约束力的，有效的，应遵守的 | |
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crescendo
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| n.(音乐)渐强，高潮 | |
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steadily
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| adv.稳定地；不变地；持续地 | |
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vaguely
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| adv.含糊地，暖昧地 | |
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78
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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instinctively
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| adv.本能地 | |
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intensification
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| n.激烈化，增强明暗度；加厚 | |
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81
breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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82
ensemble
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| n.合奏(唱)组；全套服装；整体，总效果 | |
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merge
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| v.(使)结合，(使)合并，(使)合为一体 | |
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poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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85
knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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86
sonority
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| n.响亮，宏亮 | |
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expressive
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| adj.表现的，表达…的，富于表情的 | |
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distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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89
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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penetrating
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| adj.（声音）响亮的，尖锐的adj.（气味）刺激的adj.（思想）敏锐的，有洞察力的 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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diaphanous
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| adj.(布)精致的，半透明的 | |
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tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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relentlessly
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| adv.不屈不挠地；残酷地；不间断 | |
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exquisitely
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| adv.精致地；强烈地；剧烈地；异常地 | |
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serenity
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| n.宁静，沉着，晴朗 | |
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97
alterations
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| n.改动( alteration的名词复数 )；更改；变化；改变 | |
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glorified
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| 美其名的，变荣耀的 | |
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wreck
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| n.失事，遇难；沉船；vt.(船等)失事，遇难 | |
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100
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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101
abruptness
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| n. 突然，唐突 | |
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102
vividly
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| adv.清楚地，鲜明地，生动地 | |
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103
luminous
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| adj.发光的，发亮的；光明的；明白易懂的；有启发的 | |
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104
swell
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| vi.膨胀，肿胀；增长，增强 | |
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105
harps
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| abbr.harpsichord 拨弦古钢琴n.竖琴( harp的名词复数 ) | |
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106
ascent
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| n.(声望或地位)提高；上升，升高；登高 | |
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107
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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108
fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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