Among many animals, and especially in the higher classes of animals, the males and females do not mate together casually4; there is a certain amount of selection or of courtship. In some cases, as with deer and antelopes5, the males fight with one another for the possession of the females. In other cases, as with the peacock and the humming-birds, the males display their beauty and their skill before the eyes of the assembled females. In the first instance, the victor obtains the mates; in the second instance, the mates themselves select from the group the handsomest and most personally pleasing competitor. Sexual selection, of which these are special cases, depends on the advantage[Pg 145] possessed6 by certain individuals over others of the same sex and species solely7 in respect to the question of mating. In all such instances, the males have acquired their weapons of offence and defence or their ornamental8 decorations, not from being better fitted to survive in the struggle for existence, but from having gained an advantage over other males of the same kind, and from having transmitted this advantage to offspring of their own sex alone.
Just as man can improve the breed of his game-cocks by the selection of those birds which are victorious9 in the cockpit, so the strongest and most vigorous males, or those provided with the best weapons, have prevailed in the state of nature over their feebler and more cowardly competitors. Just as man can give beauty, according to his own standard of taste, to his male poultry10, by selecting special birds for their plumage, their port, their wattles, or their hackles, so female birds in a state of nature have by a long-continued choice of the more attractive males added to their beauty and their ornamental adjuncts. In these two ways, Darwin believed, a limited selection has slowly developed weapons like the horns of buffaloes11, the antlers of stags, the tusks12 of boars, and the spurs of game-birds, together with the courage, strength, and pugnacity13 always associated with such special organs. It has also developed the ornamental plumage of the peacock, the argus pheasant, and the birds of paradise; the song of the lark14, the thrush, and the nightingale; the brilliant hues15 on the face of the mandrill; and the attractive perfume of the musk-deer, the snakes, and the scented16 butterflies. Wherever one sex possesses[Pg 146] any decorative17 or alluring18 adjunct not equally shared by the other, Darwin attributed this special gift either to the law of battle, or to the long and slowly exerted selective action of their fastidious mates.
The germ of the doctrine19 of sexual selection is to be found, like so many other of Charles Darwin's theories, in a prophetic passage of his grandfather's 'Zoonomia.' Stags, the Lichfield physician tells us, are provided with antlers 'for the purpose of combating other stags for the exclusive possession of the females, who are observed, like the ladies in the time of chivalry20, to attend the car of the victor. The birds which do not carry food to their young, and do not therefore marry, are armed with spurs for the purpose of fighting for the exclusive possession of the females, as cocks and quails21. It is certain that these weapons are not provided for their defence against other adversaries22, because the females of these species are without this armour23. The final cause of this contest among the males seems to be that the strongest and most active animal should propagate the species, which should thence become improved.'
It must be noticed, however, that Erasmus Darwin here imports into the question the metaphysical and teleological24 notion of the final cause, implying that the struggle of the males was ordained25 from without, for this express and preconceived purpose; whereas Charles Darwin, never transcending26 the world of phenomena27, more logically regards the struggle itself as an efficient cause, having for its result the survival of the strongest or the handsomest as the case may be. This distinction is fundamental; it marks the gulf28 between the essentially29 teleological spirit of the eighteenth century and[Pg 147] the essentially positive spirit of philosophy and science at the present day.
Here again, too, the immense logical superiority of Charles Darwin's rigorous and exhaustive inductive method over the loose suggestiveness of his grandfather Erasmus may easily be observed. For while Erasmus merely throws out a clever and interesting hint as to the supposed method and intention of nature, Charles Darwin proves his thesis, point by point, with almost mathematical exactitude, leaving no objection unmet behind him, but giving statistical31 and inductive warrant for every step in his cumulative32 argument. He goes carefully into the numerical proportion of the two sexes in various species; into the relative dates of arrival in any particular country of the males and females of migratory34 birds; into the question whether any individuals ever remain in the long run unpaired; into the chances of the earliest-mated or most vigorous couples leaving behind more numerous or stronger offspring to represent them in the next generation. He collects from every quarter and from all sources whatever available evidence can be obtained as to the courtship and rivalry35 of birds and butterflies, of deer and antelopes, of fish and lizards36. He shows by numerous examples and quotations37 how even flies coquet together in their pretty rhythmical38 aerial dances; how wasps39 battle eagerly with one another to secure possession of their unconcerned mates; how cicadas strive to win their 'voiceless brides' with stridulating music; how sphinx-moths40 endeavour to allure41 their partners with the musky odour of their pencilled wings; and how emperors and orange-tips display their gorgeous spots[Pg 148] and bands in the broad sunshine before the admiring and attentive42 eyes of their observant dames43. He traces up the same spirit of rivalry and ostentation44 to the cock-pheasant strutting45 about before the attendant hen, and to the meeting-places of the blackcock, where all the males of the district fight with one another and undertake long love-dances in regular tournaments, while the females stand by and watch the chances and changes of the contest with affected46 indifference47. Finally, he points out how similar effects are produced by like causes among the higher animals, especially among our near relations the monkeys; and then he proceeds to apply the principles thus firmly grounded to the particular instance of the human race itself, the primary object of his entire treatise.
Some of the most interesting of the modifications48 due to this particular form of selective action are to be found amongst the insects and other low types of animal life. The crickets, the locusts49, and the grasshoppers50, for example, are all famous for their musical powers; but the sounds themselves are produced in the different families by very different and quaintly51 varied52 organs. The song of the crickets is evoked53 by the scraping of minute teeth on the under side of either wing-cover; in the case of the locusts, the left wing, which acts as a bow, overlies the right wing, which serves as a fiddle54; while with the grasshoppers, the leg does duty as the musical instrument, and has a row of lancet-shaped elastic55 knobs along its outer surface, which the insect rubs across the nerves of the wing-covers when it wishes to charm the ears and rouse the affection of its silent mate. In a South African species of the same family,[Pg 149] the whole body of the male is fairly converted into a musical instrument, being immensely inflated56, hollow, and distended57 like a pellucid58 air-bladder in order to act as an efficient sounding-board. Among the beetles59, taste seems generally to have specialised itself rather on form than on music or colour, and the males are here usually remarkable60 for their singular and very complicated horns, often compared in various species to those of stags or rhinoceroses61, and entirely62 absent in the females of most kinds. But it is among the butterflies and moths that insect ?stheticism has produced its greatest artistic63 triumphs; for here the beautiful eye-spots and delicate markings on the expanded wing-membranes are almost certainly due to sexual selection.
The higher animals display like evidence of the same slow selective action. The courtship of the stickleback, who dances 'mad with delight' around the mate he has allured64 into the nest he prepares for her, has been observed by dozens of observers both before and since in the domestic aquarium65. The gem-like colours of the male dragonet, the butterfly wings of certain gurnards, and the decorated tails of some exotic carps all point in the same direction. Our own larger newt is adorned66 during the breeding season with a serrated crest67 edged with orange; while in the smaller kind the colours of the body acquire at the same critical period of love-making a vivid brilliancy. The strange horns and luridly68 coloured throat-pouches of tropical lizards are familiar to all visitors in equatorial climates, and they are confined exclusively to the male sex. Among birds, the superior beauty of the male plumage is known to everybody; and their greatest glory invariably coincides[Pg 150] with the special season for the selection of mates. In the spring, as even our poets have told us, the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest. The law of battle produces the spur of the game-birds and the still stranger wing-spurs of certain species of the plover69 kind. ?sthetic rivalry is answerable rather for vocal70 music, and for the plumage of the umbrella-bird, the lyre-bird, the humming-birds, and the cock of the rocks. Among mammals, strength rather than beauty seems to have carried the day; horns, and tusks, and spikes71, and antlers are here the special guerdon of the victorious males. Yet even mammals show occasional signs of distinctly ?sthetic and artistic preferences, as in the gracefully72 twisted horns of the koodoo, the scent-glands of the musk-deer or of certain antelopes, the brilliant hues of the male mandrill, and the tufts and moustaches of so many monkeys.
It must be frankly73 conceded that the reception accorded to Darwin's doctrine of sexual selection, even among the biological public, was far less unanimous, enthusiastic, and full than that which had been granted to his more extensive theory of survival of the fittest. Many eminent74 naturalists75 declined from the very outset to accept the conclusions thus definitely set before them, and others who at first seemed disposed to bow to the immense weight of Darwin's supreme77 authority gradually withdrew their grudging78 assent79 from the new doctrine, as they found their relapse backed up by others, and refused to believe that the theory of courtship had been fairly proven before the final tribunal of science. Several critics began by objecting that the whole theory was a mere30 afterthought. Darwin, they said, finding that[Pg 151] natural selection did not suffice by itself to explain all the details of structure in man, had invented sexual selection as a supplementary80 principle to help it over the hard places. Those who wrote and spoke81 in this thoughtless fashion could have had but a very inadequate82 idea of Darwin's close experimental methods of enquiry. As a matter of fact, indeed, they were entirely wrong; the doctrine of sexual selection itself, already faintly foreshadowed by Erasmus Darwin in the 'Zoonomia,' had been distinctly developed in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species' with at least as much provisional elaboration as any other equally important factor in the biological drama as set forth83 in that confessedly introductory work. Nay84, Haeckel had caught gladly at the luminous85 conception there expressed, even before the appearance of the 'Descent of Man,' and had worked it out in his 'Generelle Morphologie,' with great insight, to its legitimate86 conclusions in many directions. Indeed, the sole reason why so much space was devoted87 to the subject in Darwin's work on human development was simply because there for the first time an opportunity arose of utilising his vast store of collected information on this single aspect of the evolutionary88 process. It was no afterthought, but a necessary and inevitable89 component90 element of the fully33-developed evolutionary concept.
Still, it cannot be denied that naturalists generally did not accept with effusion the new clause in the evolutionary creed91. Many of them hesitated; a few acquiesced92; the majority more or less openly dissented93. But Darwin's belief remained firm as a rock. 'I am glad you defend sexual selection,' he wrote a few years later in a private letter; 'I have no fear about its ultimate[Pg 152] fate, though it is now at a discount;' and in the preface to the second edition of the 'Descent of Man,' he remarks acutely, 'I have been struck with the likeness94 of many of the half-favourable criticisms on sexual selection with those which appeared at first on natural selection; such as that it would explain some few details, but certainly was not applicable to the extent to which I have employed it. My conviction of the power of sexual selection remains95 unshaken.... When naturalists have become familiar with the idea, it will, as I believe, be much more largely accepted; and it has already been fully and favourably96 received by several capable judges.'
In spite of the still continued demurrer of not a few among the leading evolutionists, it is probable, I think, that Darwin's prophecy on this matter will yet be justified97 by the verdict of time. For the opposition98 to the doctrine of sexual selection proceeds almost invariably, as it seems to me, from those persons who still desire to erect99 an efficient barrier of one sort or another between the human and animal worlds; while on the contrary the theory in question is almost if not quite universally accepted by just those rigorously evolutionary biologists who are freest from preconceptions or special a priori teleological objections of any kind whatever. The half of the doctrine which deals with the law of battle, indeed, can hardly be doubted by any competent naturalist76; the other half, which deals with the supposed ?sthetic preferences of the females, is, no doubt, distasteful to certain thinkers because it seems to imply the existence in the lower animals of a sense of beauty which many among us are not even now prepared generously[Pg 153] to admit. The desire to arrogate100 to mankind alone all the higher faculties101 either of sense or intellect has probably much to do with the current disinclination towards the Darwinian idea of sexual selection. Thinkers who allow themselves to be emotionally swayed by such extraneous102 considerations forget that the beautiful is merely that which pleases; that beauty has no external objective existence; and that the range of taste, both among ourselves and among animals at large, is practically infinite. The greatest blow ever aimed at the Darwinian theory of sexual selection was undoubtedly103 that dealt out by Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace (et tu, Brute104!) in his able and subtle article on the Colours of Animals in 'Macmillan's Magazine,' since reprinted in his delightful105 work on 'Tropical Nature.' Wallace there urges with his usual acuteness, ingenuity106, and skill several fundamental objections to the Darwinian hypothesis of no little importance and weight. But it must always be remembered (with all due respect to the joint107 discoverer of natural selection) that Mr. Wallace himself, after publishing his own admirable essay on the development of man, drew back aghast in the end from the full consequences of his own admission, and uttered his partial recantation in the singular words, 'Natural selection could only have endowed the savage108 with a brain a little superior to that of an ape.' It seems probable that in every case an analogous109 desire to erect a firm barrier between man and brute by positing110 the faculty111 for perceiving beauty as a special quasi-divine differentia of the human race has been at the bottom of the still faintly surviving dislike amongst a section of scientific men to sexual selection.[Pg 154] Nevertheless, a candid112 and impartial113 critic would be compelled frankly to admit that Darwin's admirable theory of courtship has not on the whole proved so generally acceptable to the biological world up to the present time as his greater and far more comprehensive theory of survival of the fittest. It still waits for its final recognition, towards which it is progressing more rapidly and surely every day it lives.
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1
treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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casually
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| adv.漠不关心地，无动于衷地，不负责任地 | |
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antelopes
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| 羚羊( antelope的名词复数 )； 羚羊皮革 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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poultry
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| n.家禽，禽肉 | |
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buffaloes
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| n.水牛（分非洲水牛和亚洲水牛两种）( buffalo的名词复数 )；（南非或北美的）野牛；威胁；恐吓 | |
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tusks
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| n.（象等动物的）长牙( tusk的名词复数 )；獠牙；尖形物；尖头 | |
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pugnacity
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| n.好斗，好战 | |
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lark
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| n.云雀，百灵鸟；n.嬉戏，玩笑；vi.嬉戏 | |
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hues
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| 色彩( hue的名词复数 )； 色调； 信仰； 观点 | |
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scented
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| adj.有香味的；洒香水的；有气味的v.嗅到(scent的过去分词) | |
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decorative
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| adj.装饰的，可作装饰的 | |
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alluring
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| adj.吸引人的，迷人的 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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quails
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| 鹌鹑( quail的名词复数 )； 鹌鹑肉 | |
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adversaries
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| n.对手，敌手( adversary的名词复数 ) | |
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armour
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| （=armor）n.盔甲；装甲部队 | |
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teleological
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| adj.目的论的 | |
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ordained
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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transcending
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| 超出或超越（经验、信念、描写能力等）的范围( transcend的现在分词 )； 优于或胜过… | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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statistical
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| adj.统计的，统计学的 | |
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cumulative
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| adj.累积的，渐增的 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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migratory
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| n.候鸟，迁移 | |
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rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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lizards
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| n.蜥蜴( lizard的名词复数 ) | |
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quotations
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| n.引用( quotation的名词复数 )；[商业]行情（报告）；（货物或股票的）市价；时价 | |
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rhythmical
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| adj.有节奏的，有韵律的 | |
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wasps
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| 黄蜂( wasp的名词复数 )； 胡蜂； 易动怒的人； 刻毒的人 | |
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moths
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| n.蛾( moth的名词复数 ) | |
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allure
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| n.诱惑力，魅力；vt.诱惑，引诱，吸引 | |
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attentive
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| adj.注意的，专心的；关心(别人)的，殷勤的 | |
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dames
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| n.（在英国）夫人（一种封号），夫人（爵士妻子的称号）( dame的名词复数 )；女人 | |
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ostentation
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| n.夸耀，卖弄 | |
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strutting
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| 加固，支撑物 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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locusts
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| n.蝗虫( locust的名词复数 )；贪吃的人；破坏者；槐树 | |
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grasshoppers
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| n.蚱蜢( grasshopper的名词复数 )；蝗虫；蚂蚱；（孩子）矮小的 | |
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51
quaintly
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| adv.古怪离奇地 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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evoked
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| [医]诱发的 | |
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fiddle
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| n.小提琴；vi.拉提琴；不停拨弄，乱动 | |
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elastic
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| n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的 | |
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inflated
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| adj.（价格）飞涨的；（通货）膨胀的；言过其实的；充了气的v.使充气（于轮胎、气球等）( inflate的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）膨胀；（使）通货膨胀；物价上涨 | |
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distended
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| v.（使）膨胀，肿胀( distend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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pellucid
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| adj.透明的，简单的 | |
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beetles
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| n.甲虫( beetle的名词复数 ) | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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rhinoceroses
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| n.钱，钞票( rhino的名词复数 )；犀牛(=rhinoceros)；犀牛( rhinoceros的名词复数 )；脸皮和犀牛皮一样厚 | |
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62
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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allured
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| 诱引，吸引( allure的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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aquarium
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| n.水族馆，养鱼池，玻璃缸 | |
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adorned
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| [计]被修饰的 | |
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crest
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| n.顶点；饰章；羽冠；vt.达到顶点；vi.形成浪尖 | |
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luridly
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| adv. 青灰色的(苍白的, 深浓色的, 火焰等火红的) | |
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plover
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| n.珩，珩科鸟，千鸟 | |
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vocal
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| adj.直言不讳的；嗓音的；n.[pl.]声乐节目 | |
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spikes
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| n.穗( spike的名词复数 )；跑鞋；（防滑）鞋钉；尖状物v.加烈酒于( spike的第三人称单数 )；偷偷地给某人的饮料加入（更多）酒精（ 或药物）；把尖状物钉入；打乱某人的计划 | |
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gracefully
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| ad.大大方方地；优美地 | |
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frankly
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| adv.坦白地，直率地；坦率地说 | |
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eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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naturalists
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| n.博物学家( naturalist的名词复数 )；（文学艺术的）自然主义者 | |
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naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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grudging
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| adj.勉强的，吝啬的 | |
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assent
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| v.批准，认可；n.批准，认可 | |
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supplementary
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| adj.补充的，附加的 | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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luminous
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| adj.发光的，发亮的；光明的；明白易懂的；有启发的 | |
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legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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evolutionary
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| adj.进化的；演化的，演变的；[生]进化论的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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component
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| n.组成部分，成分，元件；adj.组成的，合成的 | |
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creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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acquiesced
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| v.默认，默许( acquiesce的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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dissented
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| 不同意，持异议( dissent的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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likeness
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| n.相像，相似（之处） | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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favourably
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| adv. 善意地，赞成地 =favorably | |
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justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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arrogate
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| v.冒称具有...权利，霸占 | |
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faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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extraneous
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| adj.体外的；外来的；外部的 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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brute
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| n.野兽，兽性 | |
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delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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positing
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| v.假定，设想，假设( posit的现在分词 ) | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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candid
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| adj.公正的，正直的；坦率的 | |
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impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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