The true friends of interstate peace, of whom there are as many in Latin America as other parts of the world—although, from the frequent turmoils4 which occur in that part of the globe, one might be excused for doubting it—were much distressed5 by the serious quarrel which broke out between the neighbouring Republics of Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, in the years 1907-08. This was not by any means the first conflict which arose between Salvador and Honduras, for the two States were at war in 1871, when General Miranda invaded Honduras with the object of proclaiming General Xatruch as President in place of General Medina; again in 1872, when were fought the famous battles of Sabana Grande and Santa Bárbara; and in 1873, when Salvador sent an armed expedition against President Celio Arias6, and in order to restore General Ponciano Leiva to the Presidency7 of the neighbouring Republic. Although the relations between Nicaragua and its adjoining States had long been on a questionable8 basis owing to the ambitious projects of General J. Santos Zelaya,[75] its President, there was no reason to anticipate any disturbance9, more especially as at the most critical time, owing to the intervention of the United States and Mexico, the cloud had blown over, and to all appearances peace reigned10.
The worthlessness of the intervention, and the absolute ineptitude11 of the United States to effect any permanent improvement in the prevailing12 conditions, was, however, proved conclusively13 a few months after the Treaty of Peace and Amity14 had been signed, amid somewhat premature15 rejoicings at Washington, on December 20, 1907. Almost before the ink was dry upon the document, Honduranean and Nicaraguan troops had violated the terms and conditions, and continued, moreover, to do so in spite of all diplomatic reminders16 and serious warnings from the United States. In these "warnings," however, Mexico took no part, merely using the good offices of President Diaz to effect what the threat of the Big Stick had failed to accomplish. Eventually peace was proclaimed, and since then it has been strictly17 maintained as between the different Republics, although not by any means so within their own borders, as witness what has recently occurred, and is still occurring, in Honduras, and, alas18! within Mexican territory, also. It seems a cruel irony19 that Diaz the Dictator should so soon have become the Deposed20. The fact recalls forcibly the poet Burns's well-known words:
"And may you better reck the rede, Than ever did th' adviser21!"
The true history of these Republics' quarrels of recent times would at this stage be somewhat difficult to record, since an immense quantity of official documents[76] would have to be translated and given in full. To do this, however interesting, would prove impracticable within the limits of a single volume. The matter has been sketched22 by me from personal knowledge, and I trust that I shall escape the charge of prejudice or unfairness to any of the parties involved.
For the facts set forth23 abundant evidence can be procured24, and possibly, if my account be compared with the many versions which have been from time to time adduced by others, who have spoken and written from authoritative25 or personal information, it will not be found to vary very much in the main particulars. I have patiently listened to the accounts of all that took place both on Salvadorean and on Nicaraguan territory, and, furthermore, the incidents which both led up to and followed the clash of arms were related to me by the participants when all feeling of animosity and bitterness had disappeared, and the usual friendliness26 between the members of this strangely mercurial27 people had been restored. Thus very little for spirit of resentment—although perhaps something for the vainglorious28 spirit of the individuals concerned—need be allowed. Il est difficile toujours d'estimer quelqu'un comme il veut l'être.
Considerable as is the space which I have given up in this volume to the relations of the Salvadorean, Honduranean, and Nicaraguan troubles, I find it impossible to publish in its entirety, as I should have liked to have done, the text of the complaints presented by the Governments of Honduras and Nicaragua against that of Salvador, and which were heard before and decided29 by the Central American Court of Justice, as well as the final answer and arguments which were later on issued by the Ministry30 of Foreign Affairs of[77] Salvador. All these documents, which fill two substantial and closely-printed pamphlets, the one consisting of 84 pages and the other of 108 pages, are extremely interesting and instructive, serving as they do to throw a particularly clear light upon the methods of some of the Central American States, which imagine that they are acting31 in an "honourable32" manner and fulfilling a respectable destiny.
It is significant that these publications, which are complete and official, were issued by the Government of Salvador, from which it is clear at least that this country had nothing to fear from the world at large being made acquainted with the history of the troubles. No less worthy33 of comment is it that neither Honduras nor Nicaragua has ever made any rejoinder to the arguments and conclusions of the Court of Justice or of the Salvadorean Government, and in this action, perhaps, they have for the first time shown some intelligent discretion34.
The impartial35 reader of these publications can only arrive at one conclusion, nor, indeed, is it even necessary that he should know anything of either the countries or their inhabitants to be able to form some sensible deduction36 from the actual position. The correspondence, the genuineness of which is unchallenged, speaks for itself. It seems clear that the Government of Salvador, while subscribing37 in Washington the Central American Treaty of Peace, swore faithfully to fulfil the International Agreement which bound it to its sister Republics, and at the same time opened for itself and for them, as it had every reason to hope and believe, a new era of confraternity to be maintained in dignity and mutual38 advantage. To the principles of that Treaty, Salvador[78] adhered with the utmost rigour; and, in the face of the most intense provocation39, refused to depart one inch from its solemn obligations. The attitude which this small but high-principled State showed at this time of trouble and trial has evoked40 the admiration41 and commendation of all statesmen, independently of country, or creed42, or political belief.
penitentiary43
Penitentiary at San Salvador.
Club
Officers' Club Room, Military Polytechnic44 School.
To particularize more minutely from the abundant evidence which exists to this effect, and which may be gathered from every page of these two pamphlets, is unnecessary in this volume; but one fact at least I may call attention to, as exemplifying the honesty of purpose and the good faith of the Salvadorean Government towards the Republic of Honduras, at a time, moreover, when only armed retaliation45 could reasonably have been looked for.
In all probability the friendliness of President Figueroa for his neighbours would never have been questioned, nor their relations have been in any way embittered46, but for the Machiavellian47 interference of Santos Zelaya. It is an eloquent48 fact of the sympathy felt for Honduras, that President Figueroa of Salvador wrote personally, and almost affectionately, to President Dávila, on June 10, 1907, drawing his attention to the revolutionary plans of certain Honduranean exiles who were making Salvadorean territory their temporary headquarters. Only feelings of friendship and good-nature could have prompted a neighbourly action of this kind, which, however, some few months afterwards was rewarded by President Dávila allowing his troops to join forces with the Nicaraguans in their invasion of Salvadorean territory.
This I may say in defence of ex-President Miguel R. Dávila, whom I know quite well, and with whom I[79] have had many long and interesting conversations: he is a man of great honesty of purpose, but of singularly weak will; in fact, he has neither initiative nor power of moral resistance. Quiet and modest to an extraordinary degree, speaking very little above a whisper, and with the manners of a curate rather than those of a soldier, one is inclined to rather wonder que diable fait-il dans cette galère of President of an unruly and half-savage Republic.
In agreeing to join Zelaya upon his mad and mendacious49 enterprise, President Miguel Dávila, who had only assumed the Presidency in the month of April of that year (1907), undoubtedly50 allowed his better judgment and sense of decency51 to be overruled. This do I know, also: he has deeply and sincerely repented52 of his action, not because it failed and he lost the game at which he had consented to try his hand, but because, being a man, as I have said, of innate53 honesty of purpose, he perceived when too late that he had committed what is a worse offence than a mistake—a crime against personal honour.
General Fernando Figueroa, however, did something more than merely warn President Dávila of the plotting going on against his government and his life, and which was proceeding54 beyond his own jurisdiction55. He actually prevented the leader of the Honduranean revolutionists, General Téofilo Cárcamo, from leaving Salvadorean territory, keeping him, with many other conspirators56, in prison, and thus helping57 to quell58 an uprising against President Dávila's government.
The magnanimity of the Salvadorean Government continued to the end. Notwithstanding the finding of the Central American Court of Justice, (delivered on December 19, 1908), and which, being in favour of[80] Salvador upon all points raised, should sequentia have carried costs, the Government forewent any such claims, which by the terms usually prevailing under International Law could have been insisted upon, and found its share of the expenses incurred59 by the inquiry60.
Subsequent to the troubles related in the foregoing pages, the Honduranean Government stupidly courted fresh disasters by prosecuting61 a claim for damages against the two Republics of Salvador and Guatemala for injuries which it declared it had sustained as a result of those two sister-States having harboured Honduranean agitators62 and conspirators within their borders. The exact value of this claim can best be judged by perusing63 the following questions that were considered and determined64 by the Special Court of Justice which was formed in Costa Rica (the only State which stood aside and refused to be concerned in this Central American squabble), and the members of which were made up of five different nationalities. Attached is a faithful translation of what transpired65 on this occasion:
In the Central American Court of Justice at Cartago, Costa Rica.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS VERSUS66 THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE REPUBLICS OF EL SALVADOR AND GUATEMALA.
Decision: in the City of Cartago, Costa Rica, at Midnight Of The 19th of December, 1908.
Upon the closing of the deliberations of the Court for pronouncing judgment in the complaint filed by the Government of the Republic of Honduras against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala, charging responsibility that took place in the first-mentioned Republic in the month of June last, the Chief Justice submitted the following queries67 to be voted upon in rendering68 the decision that is to settle the controversy69:
First Question.—Should the Court sustain the exception taken by the representative of the Government of Guatemala as to the inadmissibility of the complaint, on grounds that it was filed before all negotiations70 for settlement, between the two respective Departments of Foreign Affairs, had been resorted to without success?
The result of the vote cast was as follows:
First Question.—The five justices answered in the negative.
Second Question.—Should the Court sustain the exception taken by the same party, as to the insufficiency of basis of action, considering that no evidence was filed together with the complaint?
Second Question.—The five justices answered in the negative.
Third Question.—Is it proven, and should it thus be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has violated Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, signed at Washington on December 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the Capital and to submit to trial Honduranean exiles who endangered the peace of their country?
Third Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.
Fourth Question.—Is it proven, and should it thus be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has violated Article 2 of the additional convention to said treaty by fostering and promoting the revolutionary movement referred to?
Fourth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Astua, and Madriz answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.
Fifth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has contributed to the realization71 of the said political disturbance, through culpable72 negligence73?
Fifth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.
Sixth Question.—In consequence, should the Court hold that the action instituted against the Government of the Republic of El Salvador is according to law, and, if so, should that Government be sentenced to pay the indemnity74 for damages that the complainant prays for?
Sixth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.
Seventh Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has violated Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, signed at Washington on December 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the Capital and submit to trial Honduranean exiles who endangered the peace of their country?
Seventh Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.
Eighth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has violated Article 2 of the additional convention to the said treaty by fostering and promoting the revolutionary movement referred to?
Eighth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.
Ninth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has contributed to the realization of the said political disturbance, through culpable negligence?
Ninth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.
Tenth Question.—In consequence, should the Court hold that the action instituted against the Government of the Republic of Guatemala is according to law, and, if so, should the Government be sentenced to pay the indemnity for damages the complainant prays for?
Tenth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.
Eleventh Question.—Should costs be awarded against the losing parties?
Eleventh Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the sense that costs be awarded against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala.
From the above-stated result, judgment is rendered dismissing the action instituted against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala without costs.
José Astua Aguilar.
Salvador Gallegos.
Angel M. Bocanegra.
Alberto Uclés.
José Madriz.
Witness: Ernesto Martin, Secretary.
A more impudent75 or baseless claim than that put forward by Honduras, and decided by the Central American Court of Justice, can hardly be imagined. That the Honduranean Government would ever have thought of prosecuting it at all but for the instigation from its immediate76 neighbour seems hardly probable.
That the Court should have found a decision overwhelmingly in favour of Salvador and Guatemala was only natural, but it seems unfair that, having come to that inevitable77 conclusion, costs should not have followed the event, and that Honduras should not have been condemned78 to pay them.
There is but one consolation79 (a poor one, I am afraid) open to the Republics of Guatemala and Salvador in this connection—namely, that had the Court ordered Honduras to pay the costs of the inquiry, it would never have done so, any more than it has paid back to its foreign creditors80 either the principal of, or, even the interest upon, the money which it borrowed.
Were the creditors American instead of British, some satisfactory settlement would have been arrived at long ago. Even as it is, the British bondholders will be unable to obtain a settlement of any kind without recourse to American interference, and, as may be well believed, it will be upon such terms as the Americans choose to approve of, and subject to such profits out of the transactions as the Americans choose to demand.
It is satisfactory at least to observe that Honduranean impudence81 did not succeed in the above instance in getting "any rise" out of either Salvador or Guatemala.
That the relations existing to-day between the[84] two Republics of Salvador and Honduras are upon a more friendly basis, and that they are destined82 to so remain as long as the present Governments of the two countries remain in power, is proved from the interchange of congratulatory despatches made by Dr. Bertrand, President of Honduras, and Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, President of Salvador, in the month of March last, and copies of which I am enabled to give in this volume. The correspondence, conducted by telegraph, was as follows:
"Tegucigalpa,
"March 28, 1911.
"To H.E. the President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo,
San Salvador.
"I have the honour to bring to the knowledge of Your Excellency that I have to-day taken possession of the Presidency of the Republic before the National Congress. In communicating this to you, I take pleasure in anticipating the good sentiments that animate83 me for the cultivation84 of better relations with the Government over which Your Excellency so worthily85 presides, presenting to you at the same time my good wishes for the well-being86 of the Republic and for Your Excellency's personal happiness.
"I am, Your Excellency's sincere
and devoted87 servant,
"F. Bertrand."
Reply from the President of Salvador.
"San Salvador,
"March 28, 1911.
"To H.E. President Dr. Bertrand, Tegucigalpa.
"I am delighted to receive Your Excellency's important message, which conveys to me the flattering news that such a distinguished88 citizen, to whom I am bound by chains of fraternal sympathy, has to-day taken possession of the[85] elevated office of President of that Republic. Such a happy event is received with immense rejoicing by my Government and the general public, because it implies for the sister-Republic of Honduras peace and progress. I send good wishes for the well-being of Your Excellency, to whom I am pleased to offer the testimony89 of my perfect friendship and sympathy.
"Manuel E. Araujo."
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1
hostilities
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| n.战争；敌意(hostility的复数)；敌对状态；战事 | |
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intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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turmoils
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| n.混乱( turmoil的名词复数 )；焦虑 | |
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distressed
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| 痛苦的 | |
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arias
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| n.咏叹调( aria的名词复数 ) | |
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presidency
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| n.总统(校长，总经理)的职位(任期) | |
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questionable
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| adj.可疑的，有问题的 | |
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disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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ineptitude
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| n.不适当；愚笨，愚昧的言行 | |
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prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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conclusively
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| adv.令人信服地，确凿地 | |
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amity
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| n.友好关系 | |
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premature
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| adj.比预期时间早的；不成熟的，仓促的 | |
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reminders
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| n.令人回忆起…的东西( reminder的名词复数 )；提醒…的东西；（告知该做某事的）通知单；提示信 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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irony
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| n.反语，冷嘲；具有讽刺意味的事，嘲弄 | |
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deposed
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| v.罢免( depose的过去式和过去分词 )；（在法庭上）宣誓作证 | |
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adviser
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| n.劝告者，顾问 | |
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sketched
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| v.草拟（sketch的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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authoritative
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| adj.有权威的，可相信的；命令式的；官方的 | |
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friendliness
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| n.友谊，亲切，亲密 | |
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mercurial
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| adj.善变的，活泼的 | |
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vainglorious
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| adj.自负的；夸大的 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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ministry
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| n.(政府的)部；牧师 | |
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acting
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| n.演戏，行为，假装；adj.代理的，临时的，演出用的 | |
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honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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discretion
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| n.谨慎；随意处理 | |
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impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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deduction
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| n.减除，扣除，减除额；推论，推理，演绎 | |
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subscribing
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| v.捐助( subscribe的现在分词 )；签署，题词；订阅；同意 | |
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mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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provocation
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| n.激怒，刺激，挑拨，挑衅的事物，激怒的原因 | |
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evoked
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| [医]诱发的 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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penitentiary
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| n.感化院；监狱 | |
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polytechnic
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| adj.各种工艺的，综合技术的；n.工艺(专科)学校；理工(专科)学校 | |
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retaliation
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| n.报复，反击 | |
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embittered
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| v.使怨恨，激怒( embitter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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machiavellian
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| adj.权谋的，狡诈的 | |
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eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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mendacious
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| adj.不真的，撒谎的 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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decency
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| n.体面，得体，合宜，正派，庄重 | |
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repented
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| 对（自己的所为）感到懊悔或忏悔( repent的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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jurisdiction
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| n.司法权，审判权，管辖权，控制权 | |
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conspirators
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| n.共谋者，阴谋家( conspirator的名词复数 ) | |
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helping
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| n.食物的一份&adj.帮助人的，辅助的 | |
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quell
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| v.压制，平息，减轻 | |
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incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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prosecuting
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| 检举、告发某人( prosecute的现在分词 )； 对某人提起公诉； 继续从事（某事物）； 担任控方律师 | |
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agitators
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| n.（尤指政治变革的）鼓动者( agitator的名词复数 )；煽动者；搅拌器；搅拌机 | |
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63
perusing
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| v.读（某篇文字）( peruse的现在分词 )；（尤指）细阅；审阅；匆匆读或心不在焉地浏览（某篇文字） | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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transpired
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| （事实，秘密等）被人知道( transpire的过去式和过去分词 )； 泄露； 显露； 发生 | |
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versus
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| prep.以…为对手，对；与…相比之下 | |
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67
queries
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| n.问题( query的名词复数 )；疑问；询问；问号v.质疑，对…表示疑问( query的第三人称单数 )；询问 | |
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68
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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69
controversy
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| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
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70
negotiations
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| 协商( negotiation的名词复数 )； 谈判； 完成（难事）； 通过 | |
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realization
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| n.实现；认识到，深刻了解 | |
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72
culpable
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| adj.有罪的，该受谴责的 | |
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73
negligence
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| n.疏忽，玩忽，粗心大意 | |
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indemnity
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| n.赔偿，赔款，补偿金 | |
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impudent
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| adj.鲁莽的，卑鄙的，厚颜无耻的 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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78
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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consolation
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| n.安慰，慰问 | |
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80
creditors
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| n.债权人，债主( creditor的名词复数 ) | |
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81
impudence
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| n.厚颜无耻；冒失；无礼 | |
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82
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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83
animate
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| v.赋于生命，鼓励；adj.有生命的，有生气的 | |
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84
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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85
worthily
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| 重要地，可敬地，正当地 | |
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86
well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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87
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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88
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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89
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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