The creed25 which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure. To give a clear view of the moral standard set up by the theory, much more requires to be said; in particular, what things it includes in the ideas of pain and pleasure; and to what extent this is left an open question. But these supplementary26 explanations do not affect the theory of life on which this theory of morality is grounded—namely, that pleasure, and freedom from pain, are the only things desirable as ends; and that all desirable things (which are as numerous in the utilitarian as in any other scheme) are desirable either for the pleasure inherent in themselves, or as means to the promotion27 of pleasure and the prevention of pain.
Now, such a theory of life excites in many minds, and among them in some of the most estimable in feeling and purpose, inveterate28 dislike. To suppose that life has (as they express it) no higher end than pleasure—no better and nobler object of desire and pursuit—they designate as utterly29 mean and grovelling30; as a doctrine31 worthy32 only of swine, to whom the followers33 of Epicurus were, at a very early period, contemptuously likened; and modern holders34 of the doctrine are occasionally made the subject of equally polite comparisons by its German, French, and English assailants.
When thus attacked, the Epicureans have always answered, that it is not they, but their accusers, who represent human nature in a degrading light; since the accusation supposes human beings to be capable of no pleasures except those of which swine are capable. If this supposition were true, the charge could not be gainsaid35, but would then be no longer an imputation36; for if the sources of pleasure were precisely37 the same to human beings and to swine, the rule of life which is good enough for the one would be good enough for the other. The comparison of the Epicurean life to that of beasts is felt as degrading, precisely because a beast's pleasures do not satisfy a human being's conceptions of happiness. Human beings have faculties38 more elevated than the animal appetites, and when once made conscious of them, do not regard anything as happiness which does not include their gratification. I do not, indeed, consider the Epicureans to have been by any means faultless in drawing out their scheme of consequences from the utilitarian principle. To do this in any sufficient manner, many Stoic39, as well as Christian40 elements require to be included. But there is no known Epicurean theory of life which does not assign to the pleasures of the intellect; of the feelings and imagination, and of the moral sentiments, a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation. It must be admitted, however, that utilitarian writers in general have placed the superiority of mental over bodily pleasures chiefly in the greater permanency, safety, uncostliness, &c., of the former—that is, in their circumstantial advantages rather than in their intrinsic nature. And on all these points utilitarians41 have fully42 proved their case; but they might have taken the other, and, as it may be called, higher ground, with entire consistency43. It is quite compatible with the principle of utility to recognise the fact, that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity alone.
If I am asked, what I mean by difference of quality in pleasures, or what makes one pleasure more valuable than another, merely as a pleasure, except its being greater in amount, there is but one possible answer. Of two pleasures, if there be one to which all or almost all who have experience of both give a decided44 preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure. If one of the two is, by those who are competently acquainted with both, placed so far above the other that they prefer it, even though knowing it to be attended with a greater amount of discontent, and would not resign it for any quantity of the other pleasure which their nature is capable of, we are justified45 in ascribing to the preferred enjoyment46 a superiority in quality, so far outweighing47 quantity as to render it, in comparison, of small account.
Now it is an unquestionable fact that those who are equally acquainted with, and equally capable of appreciating and enjoying, both, do give a most marked preference to the manner of existence which employs their higher faculties. Few human creatures would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals, for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast's pleasures; no intelligent human being would consent to be a fool, no instructed person would be an ignoramus, no person of feeling and conscience would be selfish and base, even though they should be persuaded that the fool, the dunce, or the rascal48 is better satisfied with his lot than they are with theirs. They would not resign what they possess more than he, for the most complete satisfaction of all the desires which they have in common with him. If they ever fancy they would, it is only in cases of unhappiness so extreme, that to escape from it they would exchange their lot for almost any other, however undesirable49 in their own eyes. A being of higher faculties requires more to make him happy, is capable probably of more acute suffering, and is certainly accessible to it at more points, than one of an inferior type; but in spite of these liabilities, he can never really wish to sink into what he feels to be a lower grade of existence. We may give what explanation we please of this unwillingness50; we may attribute it to pride, a name which is given indiscriminately to some of the most and to some of the least estimable feelings of which mankind are capable; we may refer it to the love of liberty and personal independence, an appeal to which was with the Stoics51 one of the most effective means for the inculcation of it; to the love of power, or to the love of excitement, both of which do really enter into and contribute to it: but its most appropriate appellation is a sense of dignity, which all human beings possess in one form or other, and in some, though by no means in exact, proportion to their higher faculties, and which is so essential a part of the happiness of those in whom it is strong, that nothing which conflicts with it could be, otherwise than momentarily, an object of desire to them. Whoever supposes that this preference takes place at a sacrifice of happiness-that the superior being, in anything like equal circumstances, is not happier than the inferior-confounds the two very different ideas, of happiness, and content. It is indisputable that the being whose capacities of enjoyment are low, has the greatest chance of having them fully satisfied; and a highly-endowed being will always feel that any happiness which he can look for, as the world is constituted, is imperfect. But he can learn to bear its imperfections, if they are at all bearable; and they will not make him envy the being who is indeed unconscious of the imperfections, but only because he feels not at all the good which those imperfections qualify. It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, is of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question. The other party to the comparison knows both sides.
It may be objected, that many who are capable of the higher pleasures, occasionally, under the influence of temptation, postpone52 them to the lower. But this is quite compatible with a full appreciation53 of the intrinsic superiority of the higher. Men often, from infirmity of character, make their election for the nearer good, though they know it to be the less valuable; and this no less when the choice is between two bodily pleasures, than when it is between bodily and mental. They pursue sensual indulgences to the injury of health, though perfectly54 aware that health is the greater good. It may be further objected, that many who begin with youthful enthusiasm for everything noble, as they advance in years sink into indolence and selfishness. But I do not believe that those who undergo this very common change, voluntarily choose the lower description of pleasures in preference to the higher. I believe that before they devote themselves exclusively to the one, they have already become incapable55 of the other. Capacity for the nobler feelings is in most natures a very tender plant, easily killed, not only by hostile influences, but by mere want of sustenance56; and in the majority of young persons it speedily dies away if the occupations to which their position in life has devoted57 them, and the society into which it has thrown them, are not favourable58 to keeping that higher capacity in exercise. Men lose their high aspirations59 as they lose their intellectual tastes, because they have not time or opportunity for indulging them; and they addict60 themselves to inferior pleasures, not because they deliberately61 prefer them, but because they are either the only ones to which they have access, or the only ones which they are any longer capable of enjoying. It may be questioned whether any one who has remained equally susceptible62 to both classes of pleasures, ever knowingly and calmly preferred the lower; though many, in all ages, have broken down in an ineffectual attempt to combine both.
From this verdict of the only competent judges, I apprehend63 there can be no appeal. On a question which is the best worth having of two pleasures, or which of two modes of existence is the most grateful to the feelings, apart from its moral attributes and from its consequences, the judgment64 of those who are qualified65 by knowledge of both, or, if they differ, that of the majority among them, must be admitted as final. And there needs be the less hesitation66 to accept this judgment respecting the quality of pleasures, since there is no other tribunal to be referred to even on the question of quantity. What means are there of determining which is the acutest of two pains, or the intensest of two pleasurable sensations, except the general suffrage67 of those who are familiar with both? Neither pains nor pleasures are homogeneous, and pain is always heterogeneous68 with pleasure. What is there to decide whether a particular pleasure is worth purchasing at the cost of a particular pain, except the feelings and judgment of the experienced? When, therefore, those feelings and judgment declare the pleasures derived69 from the higher faculties to be preferable in kind, apart from the question of intensity70, to those of which the animal nature, disjoined from the higher faculties, is susceptible, they are entitled on this subject to the same regard.
I have dwelt on this point, as being a necessary part of a perfectly just conception of Utility or Happiness, considered as the directive rule of human conduct. But it is by no means an indispensable condition to the acceptance of the utilitarian standard; for that standard is not the agent's own greatest happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness altogether; and if it may possibly be doubted whether a noble character is always the happier for its nobleness, there can be no doubt that it makes other people happier, and that the world in general is immensely a gainer by it. Utilitarianism, therefore, could only attain71 its end by the general cultivation72 of nobleness of character, even if each individual were only benefited by the nobleness of others, and his own, so far as happiness is concerned, were a sheer deduction73 from the benefit. But the bare enunciation74 of such an absurdity75 as this last, renders refutation superfluous76.
According to the Greatest Happiness Principle, as above explained, the ultimate end, with reference to and for the sake of which all other things are desirable (whether we are considering our own good or that of other people), is an existence exempt10 as far as possible from pain, and as rich as possible in enjoyments77, both in point of quantity and quality; the test of quality, and the rule for measuring it against quantity, being the preference felt by those who, in their opportunities of experience, to which must be added their habits of self-consciousness and self-observation, are best furnished with the means of comparison. This, being, according to the utilitarian opinion, the end of human action, is necessarily also the standard of morality; which may accordingly be defined, the rules and precepts78 for human conduct, by the observance of which an existence such as has been described might be, to the greatest extent possible, secured to all mankind; and not to them only, but, so far as the nature of things admits, to the whole sentient79 creation.
Against this doctrine, however, arises another class of objectors, who say that happiness, in any form, cannot be the rational purpose of human life and action; because, in the first place, it is unattainable: and they contemptuously ask, What right hast thou to be happy? a question which Mr. Carlyle clenches81 by the addition, What right, a short time ago, hadst thou even to be? Next, they say, that men can do without happiness; that all noble human beings have felt this, and could not have become noble but by learning the lesson of Entsagen, or renunciation; which lesson, thoroughly82 learnt and submitted to, they affirm to be the beginning and necessary condition of all virtue83.
The first of these objections would go to the root of the matter were it well founded; for if no happiness is to be had at all by human beings, the attainment84 of it cannot be the end of morality, or of any rational conduct. Though, even in that case, something might still be said for the utilitarian theory; since utility includes not solely the pursuit of happiness, but the prevention or mitigation of unhappiness; and if the former aim be chimerical85, there will be all the greater scope and more imperative86 need for the latter, so long at least as mankind think fit to live, and do not take refuge in the simultaneous act of suicide recommended under certain conditions by Novalis. When, however, it is thus positively87 asserted to be impossible that human life should be happy, the assertion, if not something like a verbal quibble, is at least an exaggeration. If by happiness be meant a continuity of highly pleasurable excitement, it is evident enough that this is impossible. A state of exalted88 pleasure lasts only moments, or in some cases, and with some intermissions, hours or days, and is the occasional brilliant flash of enjoyment, not its permanent and steady flame. Of this the philosophers who have taught that happiness is the end of life were as fully aware as those who taunt89 them. The happiness which they meant was not a life of rapture90, but moments of such, in an existence made up of few and transitory pains, many and various pleasures, with a decided predominance of the active over the passive, and having as the foundation of the whole, not to expect more from life than it is capable of bestowing91. A life thus composed, to those who have been fortunate enough to obtain it, has always appeared worthy of the name of happiness. And such an existence is even now the lot of many, during some considerable portion of their lives. The present wretched education, and wretched social arrangements, are the only real hindrance92 to its being attainable80 by almost all.
The objectors perhaps may doubt whether human beings, if taught to consider happiness as the end of life, would be satisfied with such a moderate share of it. But great numbers of mankind have been satisfied with much less. The main constituents93 of a satisfied life appear to be two, either of which by itself is often found sufficient for the purpose: tranquillity94, and excitement. With much tranquillity, many find that they can be content with very little pleasure: with much excitement, many can reconcile themselves to a considerable quantity of pain. There is assuredly no inherent impossibility in enabling even the mass of mankind to unite both; since the two are so far from being incompatible95 that they are in natural alliance, the prolongation of either being a preparation for, and exciting a wish for, the other. It is only those in whom indolence amounts to a vice96, that do not desire excitement after an interval97 of repose98; it is only those in whom the need of excitement is a disease, that feel the tranquillity which follows excitement dull and insipid99, instead of pleasurable in direct proportion to the excitement which preceded it. When people who are tolerably fortunate in their outward lot do not find in life sufficient enjoyment to make it valuable to them, the cause generally is, caring for nobody but themselves. To those who have neither public nor private affections, the excitements of life are much curtailed100, and in any case dwindle101 in value as the time approaches when all selfish interests must be terminated by death: while those who leave after them objects of personal affection, and especially those who have also cultivated a fellow-feeling with the collective interests of mankind, retain as lively an interest in life on the eve of death as in the vigour102 of youth and health. Next to selfishness, the principal cause which makes life unsatisfactory, is want of mental cultivation. A cultivated mind—I do not mean that of a philosopher, but any mind to which the fountains of knowledge have been opened, and which has been taught, in any tolerable degree, to exercise its faculties—finds sources of inexhaustible interest in all that surrounds it; in the objects of nature, the achievements of art, the imaginations of poetry, the incidents of history, the ways of mankind past and present, and their prospects104 in the future. It is possible, indeed, to become indifferent to all this, and that too without having exhausted105 a thousandth part of it; but only when one has had from the beginning no moral or human interest in these things, and has sought in them only the gratification of curiosity.
Now there is absolutely no reason in the nature of things why an amount of mental culture sufficient to give an intelligent interest in these objects of contemplation, should not be the inheritance of every one born in a civilized106 country. As little is there an inherent necessity that any human being should be a selfish egotist, devoid107 of every feeling or care but those which centre in his own miserable108 individuality. Something far superior to this is sufficiently109 common even now, to give ample earnest of what the human species may be made. Genuine private affections, and a sincere interest in the public good, are possible, though in unequal degrees, to every rightly brought-up human being. In a world in which there is so much to interest, so much to enjoy, and so much also to correct and improve, every one who has this moderate amount of moral and intellectual requisites110 is capable of an existence which may be called enviable; and unless such a person, through bad laws, or subjection to the will of others, is denied the liberty to use the sources of happiness within his reach, he will not fail to find this enviable existence, if he escape the positive evils of life, the great sources of physical and mental suffering—such as indigence112, disease, and the unkindness, worthlessness, or premature113 loss of objects of affection. The main stress of the problem lies, therefore, in the contest with these calamities114, from which it is a rare good fortune entirely115 to escape; which, as things now are, cannot be obviated116, and often cannot be in any material degree mitigated117. Yet no one whose opinion deserves a moment's consideration can doubt that most of the great positive evils of the world are in themselves removable, and will, if human affairs continue to improve, be in the end reduced within narrow limits. Poverty, in any sense implying suffering, may be completely extinguished by the wisdom of society, combined with the good sense and providence118 of individuals. Even that most intractable of enemies, disease, may be indefinitely reduced in dimensions by good physical and moral education, and proper control of noxious119 influences; while the progress of science holds out a promise for the future of still more direct conquests over this detestable foe120. And every advance in that direction relieves us from some, not only of the chances which cut short our own lives, but, what concerns us still more, which deprive us of those in whom our happiness is wrapt up. As for vicissitudes121 of fortune, and other disappointments connected with worldly circumstances, these are principally the effect either of gross imprudence, of ill-regulated desires, or of bad or imperfect social institutions. All the grand sources, in short, of human suffering are in a great degree, many of them almost entirely, conquerable by human care and effort; and though their removal is grievously slow—though a long succession of generations will perish in the breach123 before the conquest is completed, and this world becomes all that, if will and knowledge were not wanting, it might easily be made—yet every mind sufficiently intelligent and generous to bear a part, however small and unconspicuous, in the endeavour, will draw a noble enjoyment from the contest itself, which he would not for any bribe124 in the form of selfish indulgence consent to be without.
And this leads to the true estimation of what is said by the objectors concerning the possibility, and the obligation, of learning to do without happiness. Unquestionably it is possible to do without happiness; it is done involuntarily by nineteen-twentieths of mankind, even in those parts of our present world which are least deep in barbarism; and it often has to be done voluntarily by the hero or the martyr125, for the sake of something which he prizes more than his individual happiness. But this something, what is it, unless the happiness of others, or some of the requisites of happiness? It is noble to be capable of resigning entirely one's own portion of happiness, or chances of it: but, after all, this self-sacrifice must be for some end; it is not its own end; and if we are told that its end is not happiness, but virtue, which is better than happiness, I ask, would the sacrifice be made if the hero or martyr did not believe that it would earn for others immunity126 from similar sacrifices? Would it be made, if he thought that his renunciation of happiness for himself would produce no fruit for any of his fellow creatures, but to make their lot like his, and place them also in the condition of persons who have renounced127 happiness? All honour to those who can abnegate for themselves the personal enjoyment of life, when by such renunciation they contribute worthily128 to increase the amount of happiness in the world; but he who does it, or professes129 to do it, for any other purpose, is no more deserving of admiration130 than the ascetic131 mounted on his pillar. He may be an inspiriting proof of what men can do, but assuredly not an example of what they should.
Though it is only in a very imperfect state of the world's arrangements that any one can best serve the happiness of others by the absolute sacrifice of his own, yet so long as the world is in that imperfect state, I fully acknowledge that the readiness to make such a sacrifice is the highest virtue which can be found in man. I will add, that in this condition of the world, paradoxical as the assertion may be, the conscious ability to do without happiness gives the best prospect103 of realizing such happiness as is attainable. For nothing except that consciousness can raise a person above the chances of life, by making him feel that, let fate and fortune do their worst, they have not power to subdue132 him: which, once felt, frees him from excess of anxiety concerning the evils of life, and enables him, like many a Stoic in the worst times of the Roman Empire, to cultivate in tranquillity the sources of satisfaction accessible to him, without concerning himself about the uncertainty133 of their duration, any more than about their inevitable134 end.
Meanwhile, let utilitarians never cease to claim the morality of self-devotion as a possession which belongs by as good a right to them, as either to the Stoic or to the Transcendentalist. The utilitarian morality does recognise in human beings the power of sacrificing their own greatest good for the good of others. It only refuses to admit that the sacrifice is itself a good. A sacrifice which does not increase, or tend to increase, the sum total of happiness, it considers as wasted. The only self-renunciation which it applauds, is devotion to the happiness, or to some of the means of happiness, of others; either of mankind collectively, or of individuals within the limits imposed by the collective interests of mankind.
I must again repeat, what the assailants of utilitarianism seldom have the justice to acknowledge, that the happiness which forms the utilitarian standard of what is right in conduct, is not the agent's own happiness, but that of all concerned. As between his own happiness and that of others, utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly135 impartial136 as a disinterested137 and benevolent138 spectator. In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics139 of utility. To do as one would be done by, and to love one's neighbour as oneself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality. As the means of making the nearest approach to this ideal, utility would enjoin140, first, that laws and social arrangements should place the happiness, or (as speaking practically it may be called) the interest, of every individual, as nearly as possible in harmony with the interest of the whole; and secondly141, that education and opinion, which have so vast a power over human character, should so use that power as to establish in the mind of every individual an indissoluble association between his own happiness and the good of the whole; especially between his own happiness and the practice of such modes of conduct, negative and positive, as regard for the universal happiness prescribes: so that not only he may be unable to conceive the possibility of happiness to himself, consistently with conduct opposed to the general good, but also that a direct impulse to promote the general good may be in every individual one of the habitual15 motives143 of action, and the sentiments connected therewith may fill a large and prominent place in every human being's sentient existence. If the impugners of the utilitarian morality represented it to their own minds in this its true character, I know not what recommendation possessed144 by any other morality they could possibly affirm to be wanting to it: what more beautiful or more exalted developments of human nature any other ethical145 system can be supposed to foster, or what springs of action, not accessible to the utilitarian, such systems rely on for giving effect to their mandates146.
The objectors to utilitarianism cannot always be charged with representing it in a discreditable light. On the contrary, those among them who entertain anything like a just idea of its disinterested character, sometimes find fault with its standard as being too high for humanity. They say it is exacting147 too much to require that people shall always act from the inducement of promoting the general interests of society. But this is to mistake the very meaning of a standard of morals, and to confound the rule of action with the motive142 of it. It is the business of ethics to tell us what are our duties, or by what test we may know them; but no system of ethics requires that the sole motive of all we do shall be a feeling of duty; on the contrary, ninety-nine hundredths of all our actions are done from other motives, and rightly so done, if the rule of duty does not condemn148 them. It is the more unjust to utilitarianism that this particular misapprehension should be made a ground of objection to it, inasmuch as utilitarian moralists have gone beyond almost all others in affirming that the motive has nothing to do with the morality of the action, though much with the worth of the agent. He who saves a fellow creature from drowning does what is morally right, whether his motive be duty, or the hope of being paid for his trouble: he who betrays the friend that trusts him, is guilty of a crime, even if his object be to serve another friend to whom he is under greater obligations.[B] But to speak only of actions done from the motive of duty, and in direct obedience149 to principle: it is a misapprehension of the utilitarian mode of thought, to conceive it as implying that people should fix their minds upon so wide a generality as the world, or society at large. The great majority of good actions are intended, not for the benefit of the world, but for that of individuals, of which the good of the world is made up; and the thoughts of the most virtuous150 man need not on these occasions travel beyond the particular persons concerned, except so far as is necessary to assure himself that in benefiting them he is not violating the rights—that is, the legitimate151 and authorized152 expectations—of any one else. The multiplication153 of happiness is, according to the utilitarian ethics, the object of virtue: the occasions on which any person (except one in a thousand) has it in his power to do this on an extended scale, in other words, to be a public benefactor154, are but exceptional; and on these occasions alone is he called on to consider public utility; in every other case, private utility, the interest or happiness of some few persons, is all he has to attend to. Those alone the influence of whose actions extends to society in general, need concern themselves habitually about so large an object. In the case of abstinences indeed—of things which people forbear to do, from moral considerations, though the consequences in the particular case might be beneficial—it would be unworthy of an intelligent agent not to be consciously aware that the action is of a class which, if practised generally, would be generally injurious, and that this is the ground of the obligation to abstain155 from it. The amount of regard for the public interest implied in this recognition, is no greater than is demanded by every system of morals; for they all enjoin to abstain from whatever is manifestly pernicious to society.
The same considerations dispose of another reproach against the doctrine of utility, founded on a still grosser misconception of the purpose of a standard of morality, and of the very meaning of the words right and wrong. It is often affirmed that utilitarianism renders men cold and unsympathizing; that it chills their moral feelings towards individuals; that it makes them regard only the dry and hard consideration of the consequences of actions, not taking into their moral estimate the qualities from which those actions emanate156. If the assertion means that they do not allow their judgment respecting the rightness or wrongness of an action to be influenced by their opinion of the qualities of the person who does it, this is a complaint not against utilitarianism, but against having any standard of morality at all; for certainly no known ethical standard decides an action to be good or bad because it is done by a good or a bad man, still less because done by an amiable157, a brave, or a benevolent man or the contrary. These considerations are relevant, not to the estimation of actions, but of persons; and there is nothing in the utilitarian theory inconsistent with the fact that there are other things which interest us in persons besides the rightness and wrongness of their actions. The Stoics, indeed, with the paradoxical misuse158 of language which was part of their system, and by which they strove to raise themselves above all concern about anything but virtue, were fond of saying that he who has that has everything; that he, and only he, is rich, is beautiful, is a king. But no claim of this description is made for the virtuous man by the utilitarian doctrine. Utilitarians are quite aware that there are other desirable possessions and qualities besides virtue, and are perfectly willing to allow to all of them their full worth. They are also aware that a right action does not necessarily indicate a virtuous character, and that actions which are blameable often proceed from qualities entitled to praise. When this is apparent in any particular case, it modifies their estimation, not certainly of the act, but of the agent. I grant that they are, notwithstanding, of opinion, that in the long run the best proof of a good character is good actions; and resolutely159 refuse to consider any mental disposition160 as good, of which the predominant tendency is to produce bad conduct. This makes them unpopular with many people; but it is an unpopularity which they must share with every one who regards the distinction between right and wrong in a serious light; and the reproach is not one which a conscientious161 utilitarian need be anxious to repel162.
If no more be meant by the objection than that many utilitarians look on the morality of actions, as measured by the utilitarian standard, with too exclusive a regard, and do not lay sufficient stress upon the other beauties of character which go towards making a human being loveable or admirable, this may be admitted. Utilitarians who have cultivated their moral feelings, but not their sympathies nor their artistic163 perceptions, do fall into this mistake; and so do all other moralists under the same conditions. What can be said in excuse for other moralists is equally available for them, namely, that if there is to be any error, it is better that it should be on that side. As a matter of fact, we may affirm that among utilitarians as among adherents164 of other systems, there is every imaginable degree of rigidity165 and of laxity in the application of their standard: some are even puritanically166 rigorous, while others are as indulgent as can possibly be desired by sinner or by sentimentalist. But on the whole, a doctrine which brings prominently forward the interest that mankind have in the repression167 and prevention of conduct which violates the moral law, is likely to be inferior to no other in turning the sanctions of opinion against such violations168. It is true, the question, What does violate the moral law? is one on which those who recognise different standards of morality are likely now and then to differ. But difference of opinion on moral questions was not first introduced into the world by utilitarianism, while that doctrine does supply, if not always an easy, at all events a tangible170 and intelligible171 mode of deciding such differences.
It may not be superfluous to notice a few more of the common misapprehensions of utilitarian ethics, even those which are so obvious and gross that it might appear impossible for any person of candour and intelligence to fall into them: since persons, even of considerable mental endowments, often give themselves so little trouble to understand the bearings of any opinion against which they entertain a prejudice, and men are in general so little conscious of this voluntary ignorance as a defect, that the vulgarest misunderstandings of ethical doctrines172 are continually met with in the deliberate writings of persons of the greatest pretensions173 both to high principle and to philosophy. We not uncommonly174 hear the doctrine of utility inveighed175 against as a godless doctrine. If it be necessary to say anything at all against so mere an assumption, we may say that the question depends upon what idea we have formed of the moral character of the Deity176. If it be a true belief that God desires, above all things, the happiness of his creatures, and that this was his purpose in their creation, utility is not only not a godless doctrine, but more profoundly religious than any other. If it be meant that utilitarianism does not recognise the revealed will of God as the supreme177 law of morals, I answer, that an utilitarian who believes in the perfect goodness and wisdom of God, necessarily believes that whatever God has thought fit to reveal on the subject of morals, must fulfil the requirements of utility in a supreme degree. But others besides utilitarians have been of opinion that the Christian revelation was intended, and is fitted, to inform the hearts and minds of mankind with a spirit which should enable them to find for themselves what is right, and incline them to do it when found, rather than to tell them, except in a very general way, what it is: and that we need a doctrine of ethics, carefully followed out, to interpret to us the will of God. Whether this opinion is correct or not, it is superfluous here to discuss; since whatever aid religion, either natural or revealed, can afford to ethical investigation178, is as open to the utilitarian moralist as to any other. He can use it as the testimony179 of God to the usefulness or hurtfulness of any given course of action, by as good a right as others can use it for the indication of a transcendental law, having no connexion with usefulness or with happiness.
Again, Utility is often summarily stigmatized180 as an immoral181 doctrine by giving it the name of Expediency182, and taking advantage of the popular use of that term to contrast it with Principle. But the Expedient183, in the sense in which it is opposed to the Right, generally means that which is expedient for the particular interest of the agent himself: as when a minister sacrifices the interest of his country to keep himself in place. When it means anything better than this, it means that which is expedient for some immediate184 object, some temporary purpose, but which violates a rule whose observance is expedient in a much higher degree. The Expedient, in this sense, instead of being the same thing with the useful, is a branch of the hurtful. Thus, it would often be expedient, for the purpose of getting over some momentary embarrassment185, or attaining186 some object immediately useful to ourselves or others, to tell a lie. But inasmuch as the cultivation in ourselves of a sensitive feeling on the subject of veracity187, is one of the most useful, and the enfeeblement of that feeling one of the most hurtful, things to which our conduct can be instrumental; and inasmuch as any, even unintentional, deviation188 from truth, does that much towards weakening the trustworthiness of human assertion, which is not only the principal support of all present social well-being189, but the insufficiency of which does more than any one thing that can be named to keep back civilisation190, virtue, everything on which human happiness on the largest scale depends; we feel that the violation169, for a present advantage, of a rule of such transcendent expediency, is not expedient, and that he who, for the sake of a convenience to himself or to some other individual, does what depends on him to deprive mankind of the good, and inflict191 upon them the evil, involved in the greater or less reliance which they can place in each other's word, acts the part of one of their worst enemies. Yet that even this rule, sacred as it is, admits of possible exceptions, is acknowledged by all moralists; the chief of which is when the withholding192 of some fact (as of information from a male-factor, or of bad news from a person dangerously ill) would preserve some one (especially a person other than oneself) from great and unmerited evil, and when the withholding can only be effected by denial. But in order that the exception may not extend itself beyond the need, and may have the least possible effect in weakening reliance on veracity, it ought to be recognized, and, if possible, its limits defined; and if the principle of utility is good for anything, it must be good for weighing these conflicting utilities against one another, and marking out the region within which one or the other preponderates193.
Again, defenders194 of utility often find themselves called upon to reply to such objections as this—that there is not time, previous to action, for calculating and weighing the effects of any line of conduct on the general happiness. This is exactly as if any one were to say that it is impossible to guide our conduct by Christianity, because there is not time, on every occasion on which anything has to be done, to read through the Old and New Testaments195. The answer to the objection is, that there has been ample time, namely, the whole past duration of the human species. During all that time mankind have been learning by experience the tendencies of actions; on which experience all the prudence122, as well as all the morality of life, is dependent. People talk as if the commencement of this course of experience had hitherto been put off, and as if, at the moment when some man feels tempted196 to meddle197 with the property or life of another, he had to begin considering for the first time whether murder and theft are injurious to human happiness. Even then I do not think that he would find the question very puzzling; but, at all events, the matter is now done to his hand. It is truly a whimsical supposition, that if mankind were agreed in considering utility to be the test of morality, they would remain without any agreement as to what is useful, and would take no measures for having their notions on the subject taught to the young, and enforced by law and opinion. There is no difficulty in proving any ethical standard whatever to work ill, if we suppose universal idiocy198 to be conjoined with it, but on any hypothesis short of that, mankind must by this time have acquired positive beliefs as to the effects of some actions on their happiness; and the beliefs which have thus come down are the rules of morality for the multitude, and for the philosopher until he has succeeded in finding better. That philosophers might easily do this, even now, on many subjects; that the received code of ethics is by no means of divine right; and that mankind have still much to learn as to the effects of actions on the general happiness, I admit, or rather, earnestly maintain. The corollaries from the principle of utility, like the precepts of every practical art, admit of indefinite improvement, and, in a progressive state of the human mind, their improvement is perpetually going on. But to consider the rules of morality as improvable, is one thing; to pass over the intermediate generalizations199 entirely, and endeavour to test each individual action directly by the first principle, is another. It is a strange notion that the acknowledgment of a first principle is inconsistent with the admission of secondary ones. To inform a traveller respecting the place of his ultimate destination, is not to forbid the use of landmarks200 and direction-posts on the way. The proposition that happiness is the end and aim of morality, does not mean that no road ought to be laid down to that goal, or that persons going thither201 should not be advised to take one direction rather than another. Men really ought to leave off talking a kind of nonsense on this subject, which they would neither talk nor listen to on other matters of practical concernment. Nobody argues that the art of navigation is not founded on astronomy, because sailors cannot wait to calculate the Nautical202 Almanack. Being rational creatures, they go to sea with it ready calculated; and all rational creatures go out upon the sea of life with their minds made up on the common questions of right and wrong, as well as on many of the far more difficult questions of wise and foolish. And this, as long as foresight203 is a human quality, it is to be presumed they will continue to do. Whatever we adopt as the fundamental principle of morality, we require subordinate principles to apply it by: the impossibility of doing without them, being common to all systems, can afford no argument against any one in particular: but gravely to argue as if no such secondary principles could be had, and as if mankind had remained till now, and always must remain, without drawing any general conclusions from the experience of human life, is as high a pitch, I think, as absurdity has ever reached in philosophical controversy204.
The remainder of the stock arguments against utilitarianism mostly consist in laying to its charge the common infirmities of human nature, and the general difficulties which embarrass conscientious persons in shaping their course through life. We are told that an utilitarian will be apt to make his own particular case an exception to moral rules, and, when under temptation, will see an utility in the breach of a rule, greater than he will see in its observance. But is utility the only creed which is able to furnish us with excuses for evil doing, and means of cheating our own conscience? They are afforded in abundance by all doctrines which recognise as a fact in morals the existence of conflicting considerations; which all doctrines do, that have been believed by sane205 persons. It is not the fault of any creed, but of the complicated nature of human affairs, that rules of conduct cannot be so framed as to require no exceptions, and that hardly any kind of action can safely be laid down as either always obligatory206 or always condemnable207. There is no ethical creed which does not temper the rigidity of its laws, by giving a certain latitude208, under the moral responsibility of the agent, for accommodation to peculiarities209 of circumstances; and under every creed, at the opening thus made, self-deception and dishonest casuistry get in. There exists no moral system under which there do not arise unequivocal cases of conflicting obligation. These are the real difficulties, the knotty210 points both in the theory of ethics, and in the conscientious guidance of personal conduct. They are overcome practically with greater or with less success according to the intellect and virtue of the individual; but it can hardly be pretended that any one will be the less qualified for dealing211 with them, from possessing an ultimate standard to which conflicting rights and duties can be referred. If utility is the ultimate source of moral obligations, utility may be invoked212 to decide between them when their demands are incompatible. Though the application of the standard may be difficult, it is better than none at all: while in other systems, the moral laws all claiming independent authority, there is no common umpire entitled to interfere213 between them; their claims to precedence one over another rest on little better than sophistry214, and unless determined215, as they generally are, by the unacknowledged influence of considerations of utility, afford a free scope for the action of personal desires and partialities. We must remember that only in these cases of conflict between secondary principles is it requisite111 that first principles should be appealed to. There is no case of moral obligation in which some secondary principle is not involved; and if only one, there can seldom be any real doubt which one it is, in the mind of any person by whom the principle itself is recognized.
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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colloquial
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| adj.口语的，会话的 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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utilitarian
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| adj.实用的，功利的 | |
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momentary
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| adj.片刻的，瞬息的；短暂的 | |
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accusation
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| n.控告，指责，谴责 | |
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pointedly
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| adv.尖地，明显地 | |
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voluptuous
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| adj.肉欲的，骄奢淫逸的 | |
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exemption
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| n.豁免，免税额，免除 | |
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exempt
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| adj.免除的；v.使免除；n.免税者，被免除义务者 | |
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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pretension
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| n.要求；自命，自称；自负 | |
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habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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rejection
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| n.拒绝，被拒，抛弃，被弃 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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disparagement
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| n.轻视，轻蔑 | |
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frivolity
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| n.轻松的乐事，兴高采烈；轻浮的举止 | |
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perverted
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| adj.不正当的v.滥用( pervert的过去式和过去分词 )；腐蚀；败坏；使堕落 | |
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distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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appellation
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| n.名称，称呼 | |
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degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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supplementary
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| adj.补充的，附加的 | |
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promotion
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| n.提升，晋级；促销，宣传 | |
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inveterate
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| adj.积习已深的，根深蒂固的 | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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grovelling
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| adj.卑下的，奴颜婢膝的v.卑躬屈节，奴颜婢膝( grovel的现在分词 )；趴 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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holders
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| 支持物( holder的名词复数 )； 持有者； （支票等）持有人； 支托（或握持）…之物 | |
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gainsaid
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| v.否认，反驳( gainsay的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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imputation
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| n.归罪，责难 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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stoic
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| n.坚忍克己之人，禁欲主义者 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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utilitarians
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| 功利主义者，实用主义者( utilitarian的名词复数 ) | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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consistency
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| n.一贯性，前后一致，稳定性；(液体的)浓度 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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outweighing
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| v.在重量上超过( outweigh的现在分词 )；在重要性或价值方面超过 | |
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rascal
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| n.流氓；不诚实的人 | |
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undesirable
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| adj.不受欢迎的，不良的，不合意的，讨厌的；n.不受欢迎的人，不良分子 | |
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unwillingness
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| n. 不愿意，不情愿 | |
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stoics
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| 禁欲主义者，恬淡寡欲的人，不以苦乐为意的人( stoic的名词复数 ) | |
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postpone
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| v.延期，推迟 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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addict
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| v.使沉溺；使上瘾；n.沉溺于不良嗜好的人 | |
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deliberately
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| adv.审慎地；蓄意地；故意地 | |
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susceptible
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| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
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apprehend
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| vt.理解，领悟，逮捕，拘捕，忧虑 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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hesitation
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| n.犹豫，踌躇 | |
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suffrage
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| n.投票，选举权，参政权 | |
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heterogeneous
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| adj.庞杂的；异类的 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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deduction
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| n.减除，扣除，减除额；推论，推理，演绎 | |
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enunciation
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| n.清晰的发音；表明，宣言；口齿 | |
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absurdity
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| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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enjoyments
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| 愉快( enjoyment的名词复数 )； 令人愉快的事物； 享有； 享受 | |
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precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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sentient
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| adj.有知觉的，知悉的；adv.有感觉能力地 | |
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attainable
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| a.可达到的，可获得的 | |
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clenches
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| v.紧握，抓紧，咬紧( clench的第三人称单数 ) | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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chimerical
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| adj.荒诞不经的，梦幻的 | |
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86
imperative
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| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
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87
positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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88
exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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89
taunt
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| n.辱骂，嘲弄；v.嘲弄 | |
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90
rapture
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| n.狂喜；全神贯注；着迷；v.使狂喜 | |
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91
bestowing
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| 砖窑中砖堆上层已烧透的砖 | |
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92
hindrance
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| n.妨碍，障碍 | |
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93
constituents
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| n.选民( constituent的名词复数 )；成分；构成部分；要素 | |
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94
tranquillity
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| n. 平静, 安静 | |
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95
incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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96
vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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97
interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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98
repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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99
insipid
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| adj.无味的，枯燥乏味的，单调的 | |
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100
curtailed
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| v.截断，缩短( curtail的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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101
dwindle
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| v.逐渐变小（或减少） | |
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102
vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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103
prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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104
prospects
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| n.希望，前途(恒为复数) | |
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105
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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106
civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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107
devoid
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| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
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108
miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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109
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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110
requisites
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| n.必要的事物( requisite的名词复数 ) | |
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111
requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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112
indigence
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| n.贫穷 | |
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113
premature
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| adj.比预期时间早的；不成熟的，仓促的 | |
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114
calamities
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| n.灾祸，灾难( calamity的名词复数 )；不幸之事 | |
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115
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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116
obviated
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| v.避免，消除（贫困、不方便等）( obviate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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117
mitigated
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| v.减轻，缓和( mitigate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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118
providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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119
noxious
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| adj.有害的，有毒的；使道德败坏的，讨厌的 | |
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120
foe
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| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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121
vicissitudes
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| n.变迁，世事变化；变迁兴衰( vicissitude的名词复数 )；盛衰兴废 | |
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122
prudence
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| n.谨慎，精明，节俭 | |
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123
breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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124
bribe
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| n.贿赂；v.向…行贿，买通 | |
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125
martyr
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| n.烈士，殉难者；vt.杀害，折磨，牺牲 | |
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126
immunity
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| n.优惠；免除；豁免，豁免权 | |
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127
renounced
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的过去式和过去分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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128
worthily
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| 重要地，可敬地，正当地 | |
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129
professes
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| 声称( profess的第三人称单数 )； 宣称； 公开表明； 信奉 | |
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130
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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131
ascetic
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| adj.禁欲的；严肃的 | |
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132
subdue
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| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
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133
uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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134
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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135
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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136
impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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137
disinterested
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| adj.不关心的，不感兴趣的 | |
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138
benevolent
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| adj.仁慈的，乐善好施的 | |
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139
ethics
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| n.伦理学；伦理观，道德标准 | |
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140
enjoin
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| v.命令；吩咐；禁止 | |
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141
secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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142
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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143
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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144
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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145
ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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146
mandates
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| 托管（mandate的第三人称单数形式） | |
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147
exacting
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| adj.苛求的，要求严格的 | |
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148
condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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149
obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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150
virtuous
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| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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151
legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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152
authorized
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| a.委任的，许可的 | |
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153
multiplication
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| n.增加，增多，倍增；增殖，繁殖；乘法 | |
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154
benefactor
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| n. 恩人，行善的人，捐助人 | |
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155
abstain
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| v.自制，戒绝，弃权，避免 | |
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156
emanate
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| v.发自，来自，出自 | |
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157
amiable
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| adj.和蔼可亲的，友善的，亲切的 | |
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158
misuse
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| n.误用，滥用；vt.误用，滥用 | |
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159
resolutely
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| adj.坚决地，果断地 | |
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160
disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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161
conscientious
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| adj.审慎正直的，认真的，本着良心的 | |
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162
repel
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| v.击退，抵制，拒绝，排斥 | |
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163
artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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164
adherents
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| n.支持者，拥护者( adherent的名词复数 )；党羽；徒子徒孙 | |
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165
rigidity
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| adj.钢性，坚硬 | |
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166
puritanically
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167
repression
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| n.镇压，抑制，抑压 | |
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168
violations
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| 违反( violation的名词复数 )； 冒犯； 违反（行为、事例）； 强奸 | |
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169
violation
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| n.违反(行为)，违背(行为)，侵犯 | |
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170
tangible
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| adj.有形的，可触摸的，确凿的，实际的 | |
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171
intelligible
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| adj.可理解的，明白易懂的，清楚的 | |
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172
doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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173
pretensions
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| 自称( pretension的名词复数 )； 自命不凡； 要求； 权力 | |
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174
uncommonly
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| adv. 稀罕(极，非常) | |
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175
inveighed
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| v.猛烈抨击，痛骂，谩骂( inveigh的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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176
deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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177
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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178
investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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179
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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180
stigmatized
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| v.使受耻辱，指责，污辱( stigmatize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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181
immoral
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| adj.不道德的，淫荡的，荒淫的，有伤风化的 | |
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182
expediency
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| n.适宜；方便；合算；利己 | |
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183
expedient
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| adj.有用的，有利的；n.紧急的办法，权宜之计 | |
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184
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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185
embarrassment
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| n.尴尬；使人为难的人(事物)；障碍；窘迫 | |
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186
attaining
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的现在分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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187
veracity
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| n.诚实 | |
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188
deviation
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| n.背离，偏离；偏差，偏向；离题 | |
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189
well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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190
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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191
inflict
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| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
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192
withholding
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| 扣缴税款 | |
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193
preponderates
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| v.超过，胜过( preponderate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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194
defenders
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| n.防御者( defender的名词复数 )；守卫者；保护者；辩护者 | |
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195
testaments
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| n.遗嘱( testament的名词复数 )；实际的证明 | |
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196
tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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197
meddle
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| v.干预，干涉，插手 | |
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198
idiocy
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| n.愚蠢 | |
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199
generalizations
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| 一般化( generalization的名词复数 )； 普通化； 归纳； 概论 | |
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200
landmarks
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| n.陆标( landmark的名词复数 )；目标；（标志重要阶段的）里程碑 ~ (in sth)；有历史意义的建筑物（或遗址） | |
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201
thither
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| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
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202
nautical
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| adj.海上的，航海的，船员的 | |
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203
foresight
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| n.先见之明，深谋远虑 | |
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204
controversy
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| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
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205
sane
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| adj.心智健全的，神志清醒的，明智的，稳健的 | |
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206
obligatory
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| adj.强制性的，义务的，必须的 | |
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207
condemnable
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| adj.该罚的，该受责备的 | |
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208
latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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209
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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210
knotty
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| adj.有结的，多节的，多瘤的，棘手的 | |
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211
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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212
invoked
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| v.援引( invoke的过去式和过去分词 )；行使（权利等）；祈求救助；恳求 | |
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213
interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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214
sophistry
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| n.诡辩 | |
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215
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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