North America divided into two vast regions, one inclining towards the Pole, the other towards the Equator—Valley of the Mississippi—Traces of the Revolutions of the Globe—Shore of the Atlantic Ocean where the English Colonies were founded—Difference in the appearance of North and of South America at the time of their Discovery—Forests of North America—Prairies—Wandering Tribes of Natives—Their outward appearance, manners, and language—Traces of an unknown people.
North America presents in its external form certain general features which it is easy to discriminate3 at the first glance. A sort of methodical order seems to have regulated the separation of land and water, mountains and valleys. A simple, but grand, arrangement is discoverable amidst the confusion of objects and the prodigious4 variety of scenes. This continent is divided, almost equally, into two vast regions, one of which is bounded on the north by the Arctic Pole, and by the two great oceans on the east and west. It stretches towards the south, forming a triangle whose irregular sides meet at length below the great lakes of Canada. The second region begins where the other terminates, and includes all the remainder of the continent. The one slopes gently towards the Pole, the other towards the Equator.
The territory comprehended in the first region descends5 towards the north with so imperceptible a slope that it may almost be said to form a level plain. Within the bounds of this immense tract6 of country there are neither high mountains nor deep valleys. Streams meander7 through it irregularly: great rivers mix their currents, separate and meet again, disperse8 and form vast marshes9, losing all trace of their channels in the labyrinth10 of waters they have themselves created; and thus, at length, after innumerable windings11, fall into the Polar Seas. The great lakes which bound this first region are not walled in, like most of those in the Old World, between hills and rocks. Their banks are flat, and rise but a few feet above the level of their waters; each of them thus forming a vast bowl filled to the brim. The slightest change in the structure of the globe would cause their waters to rush either towards the Pole or to the tropical sea.
The second region is more varied12 on its surface, and better suited for the habitation of man. Two long chains of mountains divide it from one extreme to the other; the Alleghany ridge13 takes the form of the shores of the Atlantic Ocean; the other is parallel with the Pacific. The space which lies between these two chains of mountains contains 1,341,649 square miles. *a Its surface is therefore about six times as great as that of France. This vast territory, however, forms a single valley, one side of which descends gradually from the rounded summits of the Alleghanies, while the other rises in an uninterrupted course towards the tops of the Rocky Mountains. At the bottom of the valley flows an immense river, into which the various streams issuing from the mountains fall from all parts. In memory of their native land, the French formerly14 called this river the St. Louis. The Indians, in their pompous15 language, have named it the Father of Waters, or the Mississippi.
a
[ Darby's "View of the United States."]
The Mississippi takes its source above the limit of the two great regions of which I have spoken, not far from the highest point of the table-land where they unite. Near the same spot rises another river, *b which empties itself into the Polar seas. The course of the Mississippi is at first dubious16: it winds several times towards the north, from whence it rose; and at length, after having been delayed in lakes and marshes, it flows slowly onwards to the south. Sometimes quietly gliding17 along the argillaceous bed which nature has assigned to it, sometimes swollen18 by storms, the Mississippi waters 2,500 miles in its course. *c At the distance of 1,364 miles from its mouth this river attains19 an average depth of fifteen feet; and it is navigated20 by vessels21 of 300 tons burden for a course of nearly 500 miles. Fifty-seven large navigable rivers contribute to swell22 the waters of the Mississippi; amongst others, the Missouri, which traverses a space of 2,500 miles; the Arkansas of 1,300 miles, the Red River 1,000 miles, four whose course is from 800 to 1,000 miles in length, viz., the Illinois, the St. Peter's, the St. Francis, and the Moingona; besides a countless23 multitude of rivulets24 which unite from all parts their tributary25 streams.
b
[ The Red River.]
c
[ Warden's "Description of the United States."]
The valley which is watered by the Mississippi seems formed to be the bed of this mighty26 river, which, like a god of antiquity27, dispenses28 both good and evil in its course. On the shores of the stream nature displays an inexhaustible fertility; in proportion as you recede29 from its banks, the powers of vegetation languish30, the soil becomes poor, and the plants that survive have a sickly growth. Nowhere have the great convulsions of the globe left more evident traces than in the valley of the Mississippi; the whole aspect of the country shows the powerful effects of water, both by its fertility and by its barrenness. The waters of the primeval ocean accumulated enormous beds of vegetable mould in the valley, which they levelled as they retired31. Upon the right shore of the river are seen immense plains, as smooth as if the husbandman had passed over them with his roller. As you approach the mountains the soil becomes more and more unequal and sterile32; the ground is, as it were, pierced in a thousand places by primitive33 rocks, which appear like the bones of a skeleton whose flesh is partly consumed. The surface of the earth is covered with a granite34 sand and huge irregular masses of stone, among which a few plants force their growth, and give the appearance of a green field covered with the ruins of a vast edifice35. These stones and this sand discover, on examination, a perfect analogy with those which compose the arid36 and broken summits of the Rocky Mountains. The flood of waters which washed the soil to the bottom of the valley afterwards carried away portions of the rocks themselves; and these, dashed and bruised37 against the neighboring cliffs, were left scattered38 like wrecks39 at their feet. *d The valley of the Mississippi is, upon the whole, the most magnificent dwelling-place prepared by God for man's abode40; and yet it may be said that at present it is but a mighty desert.
d
[ See Appendix, A.]
On the eastern side of the Alleghanies, between the base of these mountains and the Atlantic Ocean, there lies a long ridge of rocks and sand, which the sea appears to have left behind as it retired. The mean breadth of this territory does not exceed one hundred miles; but it is about nine hundred miles in length. This part of the American continent has a soil which offers every obstacle to the husbandman, and its vegetation is scanty41 and unvaried.
Upon this inhospitable coast the first united efforts of human industry were made. The tongue of arid land was the cradle of those English colonies which were destined43 one day to become the United States of America. The centre of power still remains44 here; whilst in the backwoods the true elements of the great people to whom the future control of the continent belongs are gathering45 almost in secrecy46 together.
When the Europeans first landed on the shores of the West Indies, and afterwards on the coast of South America, they thought themselves transported into those fabulous47 regions of which poets had sung. The sea sparkled with phosphoric light, and the extraordinary transparency of its waters discovered to the view of the navigator all that had hitherto been hidden in the deep abyss. *e Here and there appeared little islands perfumed with odoriferous plants, and resembling baskets of flowers floating on the tranquil48 surface of the ocean. Every object which met the sight, in this enchanting49 region, seemed prepared to satisfy the wants or contribute to the pleasures of man. Almost all the trees were loaded with nourishing fruits, and those which were useless as food delighted the eye by the brilliancy and variety of their colors. In groves50 of fragrant51 lemon-trees, wild figs52, flowering myrtles, acacias, and oleanders, which were hung with festoons of various climbing plants, covered with flowers, a multitude of birds unknown in Europe displayed their bright plumage, glittering with purple and azure53, and mingled54 their warbling with the harmony of a world teeming55 with life and motion. *f Underneath56 this brilliant exterior death was concealed57. But the air of these climates had so enervating58 an influence that man, absorbed by present enjoyment59, was rendered regardless of the future.
e
[ Malte Brun tells us (vol. v. p. 726) that the water of the Caribbean Sea is so transparent60 that corals and fish are discernible at a depth of sixty fathoms61. The ship seemed to float in air, the navigator became giddy as his eye penetrated62 through the crystal flood, and beheld63 submarine gardens, or beds of shells, or gilded64 fishes gliding among tufts and thickets65 of seaweed.]
f
[ See Appendix, B.]
North America appeared under a very different aspect; there everything was grave, serious, and solemn: it seemed created to be the domain66 of intelligence, as the South was that of sensual delight. A turbulent and foggy ocean washed its shores. It was girt round by a belt of granite rocks, or by wide tracts67 of sand. The foliage68 of its woods was dark and gloomy, for they were composed of firs, larches69, evergreen70 oaks, wild olive-trees, and laurels71. Beyond this outer belt lay the thick shades of the central forest, where the largest trees which are produced in the two hemispheres grow side by side. The plane, the catalpa, the sugar-maple, and the Virginian poplar mingled their branches with those of the oak, the beech72, and the lime. In these, as in the forests of the Old World, destruction was perpetually going on. The ruins of vegetation were heaped upon each other; but there was no laboring73 hand to remove them, and their decay was not rapid enough to make room for the continual work of reproduction. Climbing plants, grasses, and other herbs forced their way through the mass of dying trees; they crept along their bending trunks, found nourishment75 in their dusty cavities, and a passage beneath the lifeless bark. Thus decay gave its assistance to life, and their respective productions were mingled together. The depths of these forests were gloomy and obscure, and a thousand rivulets, undirected in their course by human industry, preserved in them a constant moisture. It was rare to meet with flowers, wild fruits, or birds beneath their shades. The fall of a tree overthrown76 by age, the rushing torrent77 of a cataract78, the lowing of the buffalo79, and the howling of the wind were the only sounds which broke the silence of nature.
To the east of the great river, the woods almost disappeared; in their stead were seen prairies of immense extent. Whether Nature in her infinite variety had denied the germs of trees to these fertile plains, or whether they had once been covered with forests, subsequently destroyed by the hand of man, is a question which neither tradition nor scientific research has been able to resolve.
These immense deserts were not, however, devoid80 of human inhabitants. Some wandering tribes had been for ages scattered among the forest shades or the green pastures of the prairie. From the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the delta81 of the Mississippi, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, these savages82 possessed84 certain points of resemblance which bore witness of their common origin; but at the same time they differed from all other known races of men: *g they were neither white like the Europeans, nor yellow like most of the Asiatics, nor black like the negroes. Their skin was reddish brown, their hair long and shining, their lips thin, and their cheekbones very prominent. The languages spoken by the North American tribes are various as far as regarded their words, but they were subject to the same grammatical rules. These rules differed in several points from such as had been observed to govern the origin of language. The idiom of the Americans seemed to be the product of new combinations, and bespoke85 an effort of the understanding of which the Indians of our days would be incapable86. *h
g
[ With the progress of discovery some resemblance has been found to exist between the physical conformation, the language, and the habits of the Indians of North America, and those of the Tongous, Mantchous, Mongols, Tartars, and other wandering tribes of Asia. The land occupied by these tribes is not very distant from Behring's Strait, which allows of the supposition, that at a remote period they gave inhabitants to the desert continent of America. But this is a point which has not yet been clearly elucidated87 by science. See Malte Brun, vol. v.; the works of Humboldt; Fischer, "Conjecture88 sur l'Origine des Americains"; Adair, "History of the American Indians."]
h
[ See Appendix, C.]
The social state of these tribes differed also in many respects from all that was seen in the Old World. They seemed to have multiplied freely in the midst of their deserts without coming in contact with other races more civilized89 than their own. Accordingly, they exhibited none of those indistinct, incoherent notions of right and wrong, none of that deep corruption90 of manners, which is usually joined with ignorance and rudeness among nations which, after advancing to civilization, have relapsed into a state of barbarism. The Indian was indebted to no one but himself; his virtues91, his vices92, and his prejudices were his own work; he had grown up in the wild independence of his nature.
If, in polished countries, the lowest of the people are rude and uncivil, it is not merely because they are poor and ignorant, but that, being so, they are in daily contact with rich and enlightened men. The sight of their own hard lot and of their weakness, which is daily contrasted with the happiness and power of some of their fellow-creatures, excites in their hearts at the same time the sentiments of anger and of fear: the consciousness of their inferiority and of their dependence93 irritates while it humiliates94 them. This state of mind displays itself in their manners and language; they are at once insolent95 and servile. The truth of this is easily proved by observation; the people are more rude in aristocratic countries than elsewhere, in opulent cities than in rural districts. In those places where the rich and powerful are assembled together the weak and the indigent96 feel themselves oppressed by their inferior condition. Unable to perceive a single chance of regaining97 their equality, they give up to despair, and allow themselves to fall below the dignity of human nature.
This unfortunate effect of the disparity of conditions is not observable in savage83 life: the Indians, although they are ignorant and poor, are equal and free. At the period when Europeans first came among them the natives of North America were ignorant of the value of riches, and indifferent to the enjoyments98 which civilized man procures99 to himself by their means. Nevertheless there was nothing coarse in their demeanor100; they practised an habitual101 reserve and a kind of aristocratic politeness. Mild and hospitable42 when at peace, though merciless in war beyond any known degree of human ferocity, the Indian would expose himself to die of hunger in order to succor102 the stranger who asked admittance by night at the door of his hut; yet he could tear in pieces with his hands the still quivering limbs of his prisoner. The famous republics of antiquity never gave examples of more unshaken courage, more haughty103 spirits, or more intractable love of independence than were hidden in former times among the wild forests of the New World. *i The Europeans produced no great impression when they landed upon the shores of North America; their presence engendered104 neither envy nor fear. What influence could they possess over such men as we have described? The Indian could live without wants, suffer without complaint, and pour out his death-song at the stake. *j Like all the other members of the great human family, these savages believed in the existence of a better world, and adored under different names, God, the creator of the universe. Their notions on the great intellectual truths were in general simple and philosophical105. *k
i
[ We learn from President Jefferson's "Notes upon Virginia," p. 148, that among the Iroquois, when attacked by a superior force, aged106 men refused to fly or to survive the destruction of their country; and they braved death like the ancient Romans when their capital was sacked by the Gauls. Further on, p. 150, he tells us that there is no example of an Indian who, having fallen into the hands of his enemies, begged for his life; on the contrary, the captive sought to obtain death at the hands of his conquerors107 by the use of insult and provocation108.]
j
[ See "Histoire de la Louisiane," by Lepage Dupratz; Charlevoix, "Histoire de la Nouvelle France"; "Lettres du Rev1. G. Hecwelder;" "Transactions of the American Philosophical Society," v. I; Jefferson's "Notes on Virginia," pp. 135-190. What is said by Jefferson is of especial weight, on account of the personal merit of the writer, of his peculiar109 position, and of the matter-of-fact age in which he lived.]
k
[ See Appendix, D.]
Although we have here traced the character of a primitive people, yet it cannot be doubted that another people, more civilized and more advanced in all respects, had preceded it in the same regions.
An obscure tradition which prevailed among the Indians to the north of the Atlantic informs us that these very tribes formerly dwelt on the west side of the Mississippi. Along the banks of the Ohio, and throughout the central valley, there are frequently found, at this day, tumuli raised by the hands of men. On exploring these heaps of earth to their centre, it is usual to meet with human bones, strange instruments, arms and utensils110 of all kinds, made of metal, or destined for purposes unknown to the present race. The Indians of our time are unable to give any information relative to the history of this unknown people. Neither did those who lived three hundred years ago, when America was first discovered, leave any accounts from which even an hypothesis could be formed. Tradition—that perishable111, yet ever renewed monument of the pristine112 world—throws no light upon the subject. It is an undoubted fact, however, that in this part of the globe thousands of our fellow-beings had lived. When they came hither, what was their origin, their destiny, their history, and how they perished, no one can tell. How strange does it appear that nations have existed, and afterwards so completely disappeared from the earth that the remembrance of their very names is effaced113; their languages are lost; their glory is vanished like a sound without an echo; though perhaps there is not one which has not left behind it some tomb in memory of its passage! The most durable114 monument of human labor74 is that which recalls the wretchedness and nothingness of man.
Although the vast country which we have been describing was inhabited by many indigenous115 tribes, it may justly be said at the time of its discovery by Europeans to have formed one great desert. The Indians occupied without possessing it. It is by agricultural labor that man appropriates the soil, and the early inhabitants of North America lived by the produce of the chase. Their implacable prejudices, their uncontrolled passions, their vices, and still more perhaps their savage virtues, consigned116 them to inevitable117 destruction. The ruin of these nations began from the day when Europeans landed on their shores; it has proceeded ever since, and we are now witnessing the completion of it. They seem to have been placed by Providence118 amidst the riches of the New World to enjoy them for a season, and then surrender them. Those coasts, so admirably adapted for commerce and industry; those wide and deep rivers; that inexhaustible valley of the Mississippi; the whole continent, in short, seemed prepared to be the abode of a great nation, yet unborn.
In that land the great experiment was to be made, by civilized man, of the attempt to construct society upon a new basis; and it was there, for the first time, that theories hitherto unknown, or deemed impracticable, were to exhibit a spectacle for which the world had not been prepared by the history of the past.
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rev
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| v.发动机旋转，加快速度 | |
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exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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discriminate
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| v.区别，辨别，区分；有区别地对待 | |
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prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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descends
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| v.下来( descend的第三人称单数 )；下去；下降；下斜 | |
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tract
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| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
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meander
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| n.河流的曲折，漫步，迂回旅行；v.缓慢而弯曲地流动，漫谈 | |
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disperse
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| vi.使分散；使消失；vt.分散；驱散 | |
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marshes
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| n.沼泽，湿地( marsh的名词复数 ) | |
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labyrinth
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| n.迷宫；难解的事物；迷路 | |
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windings
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| （道路、河流等）蜿蜒的，弯曲的( winding的名词复数 )； 缠绕( wind的现在分词 )； 卷绕； 转动（把手） | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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ridge
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| n.山脊；鼻梁；分水岭 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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pompous
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| adj.傲慢的，自大的；夸大的；豪华的 | |
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dubious
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| adj.怀疑的，无把握的；有问题的，靠不住的 | |
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gliding
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swollen
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| adj.肿大的，水涨的；v.使变大，肿胀 | |
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attains
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的第三人称单数 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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navigated
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| v.给（船舶、飞机等）引航，导航( navigate的过去式和过去分词 )；（从海上、空中等）横越；横渡；飞跃 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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swell
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| vi.膨胀，肿胀；增长，增强 | |
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countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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rivulets
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| n.小河，小溪( rivulet的名词复数 ) | |
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tributary
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| n.支流；纳贡国；adj.附庸的；辅助的；支流的 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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dispenses
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| v.分配，分与；分配( dispense的第三人称单数 )；施与；配（药） | |
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recede
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| vi.退(去)，渐渐远去；向后倾斜，缩进 | |
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languish
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| vi.变得衰弱无力，失去活力，（植物等）凋萎 | |
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retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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sterile
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| adj.不毛的，不孕的，无菌的，枯燥的，贫瘠的 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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granite
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| adj.花岗岩，花岗石 | |
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edifice
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| n.宏伟的建筑物(如宫殿，教室) | |
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arid
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| adj.干旱的；(土地)贫瘠的 | |
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bruised
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| [医]青肿的，瘀紫的 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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wrecks
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| n.沉船( wreck的名词复数 )；（事故中）遭严重毁坏的汽车（或飞机等）；（身体或精神上）受到严重损伤的人；状况非常糟糕的车辆（或建筑物等）v.毁坏[毁灭]某物( wreck的第三人称单数 )；使（船舶）失事，使遇难，使下沉 | |
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abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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hospitable
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| adj.好客的；宽容的；有利的，适宜的 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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secrecy
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| n.秘密，保密，隐蔽 | |
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fabulous
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| adj.极好的；极为巨大的；寓言中的，传说中的 | |
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tranquil
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| adj. 安静的, 宁静的, 稳定的, 不变的 | |
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enchanting
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| a.讨人喜欢的 | |
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groves
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| 树丛，小树林( grove的名词复数 ) | |
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fragrant
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| adj.芬香的，馥郁的，愉快的 | |
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figs
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| figures 数字，图形，外形 | |
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azure
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| adj.天蓝色的，蔚蓝色的 | |
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mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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teeming
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| adj.丰富的v.充满( teem的现在分词 )；到处都是；（指水、雨等）暴降；倾注 | |
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56
underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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57
concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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58
enervating
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| v.使衰弱，使失去活力( enervate的现在分词 ) | |
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enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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60
transparent
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| adj.明显的，无疑的；透明的 | |
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61
fathoms
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| 英寻( fathom的名词复数 ) | |
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62
penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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63
beheld
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| v.看，注视( behold的过去式和过去分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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64
gilded
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| a.镀金的，富有的 | |
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thickets
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| n.灌木丛( thicket的名词复数 )；丛状物 | |
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domain
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| n.(活动等)领域，范围；领地，势力范围 | |
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tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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68
foliage
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| n.叶子，树叶，簇叶 | |
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larches
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| n.落叶松（木材）( larch的名词复数 ) | |
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70
evergreen
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| n.常青树；adj.四季常青的 | |
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laurels
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| n.桂冠，荣誉 | |
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72
beech
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| n.山毛榉；adj.山毛榉的 | |
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73
laboring
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| n.劳动，操劳v.努力争取(for)( labor的现在分词 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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74
labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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75
nourishment
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| n.食物，营养品；营养情况 | |
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76
overthrown
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| adj. 打翻的，推倒的，倾覆的 动词overthrow的过去分词 | |
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torrent
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| n.激流，洪流；爆发，(话语等的)连发 | |
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cataract
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| n.大瀑布，奔流，洪水，白内障 | |
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buffalo
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| n.(北美)野牛；(亚洲)水牛 | |
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80
devoid
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| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
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delta
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| n.（流的）角洲 | |
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82
savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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83
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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85
bespoke
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| adj.（产品）订做的；专做订货的v.预定( bespeak的过去式 )；订（货）；证明；预先请求 | |
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86
incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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elucidated
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| v.阐明，解释( elucidate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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dependence
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| n.依靠，依赖；信任，信赖；隶属 | |
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humiliates
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| 使蒙羞，羞辱，使丢脸( humiliate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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insolent
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| adj.傲慢的，无理的 | |
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indigent
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| adj.贫穷的，贫困的 | |
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regaining
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| 复得( regain的现在分词 )； 赢回； 重回； 复至某地 | |
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enjoyments
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| 愉快( enjoyment的名词复数 )； 令人愉快的事物； 享有； 享受 | |
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99
procures
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的第三人称单数 )；拉皮条 | |
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100
demeanor
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| n.行为；风度 | |
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101
habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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102
succor
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| n.援助，帮助；v.给予帮助 | |
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103
haughty
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| adj.傲慢的，高傲的 | |
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104
engendered
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| v.产生（某形势或状况），造成，引起( engender的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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105
philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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106
aged
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| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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107
conquerors
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| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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108
provocation
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| n.激怒，刺激，挑拨，挑衅的事物，激怒的原因 | |
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109
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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110
utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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111
perishable
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| adj.（尤指食物）易腐的，易坏的 | |
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112
pristine
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| adj.原来的，古时的，原始的，纯净的，无垢的 | |
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113
effaced
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| v.擦掉( efface的过去式和过去分词 )；抹去；超越；使黯然失色 | |
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114
durable
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| adj.持久的，耐久的 | |
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115
indigenous
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| adj.土产的，土生土长的，本地的 | |
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116
consigned
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| v.把…置于（令人不快的境地）( consign的过去式和过去分词 )；把…托付给；把…托人代售；丟弃 | |
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117
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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118
providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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