That the best law of customs is that which gives the greatest possible facility to the importation of raw materials, and which throws most obstacles in the way of importing finished goods.
There is no sophism3 in political economy more widely disseminated4 than this. It is cherished not only by the protectionist school, but also, and above all, by the school which dubs5 itself liberal; and it is unfortunate that it should be so, for what can be more injurious to a good cause than that it should be at the same time vigorously attacked and feebly defended?
Commercial liberty is likely to have the fate of liberty in general; it will only find a place in the statute-book after it has taken possession of men's minds and convictions. But if it be true that a reform, in order to be solidly established, should be generally understood, it follows that nothing can so much retard6 reform as that which misleads public opinion; and what is more calculated to mislead public opinion than works which, in advocating freedom, invoke7 aid from the doctrines9 of monopoly?
Some years ago three of the great towns of France—Lyons, Bordeaux, and Havre—united in a movement against the restrictive regime. All Europe was stirred on seeing raised what they took for the banner of liberty. Alas10! it proved to be also the banner of monopoly—of a monopoly a little more niggardly11 and much more absurd than that of which they seemed to desire the overthrow12. By the aid of the sophism which I have just endeavoured to expose, the petitioners13 did nothing more than reproduce the doctrine8 of protection to national industry, tacking14 to it an additional inconsistency.
It was, in fact, nothing else than the regime of prohibition15. Just listen to M. de Saint-Cricq:—
"Labour constitutes the wealth of a nation, because labour alone creates those material objects which our wants demand; and universal ease and comfort consist in the abundance of these things." So much for the principle.
"But this abundance must be produced by national labour. If it were the result of foreign labour, national labour would be immediately brought to a stand." Here lies the error. (See the preceding sophism.)
"What course should an agricultural and manufacturing country take under such circumstances? Reserve its markets for the products of its own soil and of its own industry." Such is the end and design.
"And for that purpose, restrain by duties, and, if necessary, prohibit importation of the products of the soil and industry of other nations." Such are the means.
Let us compare this system with that which the Bordeaux petition advocates.
Commodities are there divided into three classes:—
"The first includes provisions, and raw materials upon which no human labour has been bestowed17. In principle, a wise economy would demand that this class should be free of duties. Here we have no labour, no protection.
"The second consists of products which have, to some extent, been prepared. This preparation warrants such products being charged with a certain amount of duty." Here protection begins, because here, according to the petitioners, begins national labour.
"The third comprises goods and products in their finished and perfect state. These contribute nothing to national labour, and we regard this class as the most taxable." Here labour, and production along with it, reach their maximum.
We thus see that the petitioners profess18 their belief in the doctrine, that foreign labour is injurious to national labour; and this is the error of the prohibitive system.
They demand that the home market should be reserved for home industry. That is the design of the system of prohibition.
They demand that foreign labour should be subjected to restrictions19 and taxes. These are the means employed by the system of prohibition.
What difference, then, can we possibly discover between the Bordeaux petitioners and the Corypheus of restriction20? One difference, and one only—the greater or less extension given to the word labour.
M. de Saint-Cricq extends it to everything, and so he wishes to protect all.
"Labour constitutes all the wealth of a people," he says; "to protect agricultural industry, and all agricultural industry; to protect manufacturing industry, and all manufacturing industry, is the cry which should never cease to be heard in this Chamber21."
The Bordeaux petitioners take no labour into account but that of the manufacturers; and for that reason they would admit them to the benefits of protection.
"Raw materials are commodities upon which no human labour has been bestowed. In principle, we should not tax them. Manufactured products can no longer serve the cause of national industry, and we regard them as the best subjects for taxation22."
It is not our business in this place to inquire whether protection to national industry is reasonable. M. de Saint-Cricq and the Bordeaux gentlemen are at one upon this point, and, as we have shown in the preceding chapters, we on this subject differ from both.
Our present business is to discover whether it is by M. de Saint-Cricq, or by the Bordeaux petitioners, that the word labour is used in a correct sense.
Now, in this view of the question, we think that M. de Saint-Cricq has very much the best of it; and to prove this, we may suppose them to hold some such dialogue as the following:—
M. de Saint-Cricq: You grant that national labour should be protected. You grant that the products of no foreign labour can be introduced into our market without superseding23 a corresponding amount of our national labour. Only, you contend that there are a multiplicity of products possessed24 of value (for they sell), but upon which no human labour has been bestowed [vierges de tout25 travail26 humain]. And you enumerate27, among other things, com, flour, meat, cattle, tallow, salt, iron, copper28, lead, coal, wools, hides, seeds, etc.
If you will only prove to me that the value of these things is not due to labour, I will grant that it is useless to protect them.
But, on the other hand, if I demonstrate to you that there is as much labour worked up in a 100 fr. worth of wool as in a 100 fr. worth of textile fabrics29, you will allow that the one is as worthy31 of protection as the other.
Now, why is this sack of wool worth 100 fr.? Is it not because that is its cost price? and what does its cost price represent, but the aggregate32 wages of all the labour, and profits of all the capital, which have contributed to the production of the commodity?
The Bordeaux Petitioners: Well, perhaps as regards wool you may be right. But take the case of a sack of corn, a bar of iron, a hundredweight of coals,—are these commodities produced by labour? Are they not created by nature?
M. de Saint-Cricq: Undoubtedly33 nature creates the elements of all these things, but it is labour which produces the value. I was wrong myself in saying that labour created material objects, and that vicious form of expression has led me into other errors. It does not belong to man to create, to make anything out of nothing, be he agriculturist or manufacturer; and if by production is meant creation, all our labour must be marked down as unproductive, and yours, as merchants, more unproductive than all others, excepting perhaps my own.
The agriculturist, then, cannot pretend to have created corn, but he has created value; I mean to say, he has, by his labour, and that of his servants, labourers, reapers34, etc., transformed into corn substances which had no resemblance to it whatever. The miller35 who converts the corn into flour, the baker36 who converts the flour into bread, do the same thing.
In order that man may be enabled to clothe himself, a multitude of operations are necessary. Prior to all intervention37 of human labour, the true raw materials of cloth are the air, the water, the heat, the gases, the light, the salts, which enter into its composition. These are the raw materials upon which strictly38 speaking, no human labour has been employed. They are vierges de tout travail humain; and since they have no value, I should never dream of protecting them. But the first application of labour converts these substances into grass and provender39, a second into wool, a third into yarn40, a fourth into a woven fabric30, a fifth into clothing. Who can assert that the whole of these operations, from the first furrow41 laid open by the plough, to the last stitch of the tailor's needle, do not resolve themselves into labour?
And it is because these operations are spread over several branches of industry, in order to accelerate and facilitate the accomplishment42 of the ultimate object, which is to furnish clothing to those who have need of it, that you desire, by an arbitrary distinction, to rank the importance of such works in the order in which they succeed each other, so that the first of the series shall not merit even the name of labour, and that the last, being labour par16 excellence43, shall be worthy of the favours of protection?
The Petitioners: Yes; we begin to see that corn, like wool, is not exactly a product of which it can be said that no human labour has been bestowed upon it; but the agriculturist has not, at least, like the manufacturer, done everything himself or by means of his workmen; nature has assisted him, and if there is labour worked up in corn, it is not the simple product of labour.
M. de Saint-Cricq: But its value resolves itself exclusively into labour. I am happy that nature concurs44 in the material formation of grain. I could even wish that it were entirely45 her work; but you must allow that I have constrained46 this assistance of nature by my labour, and when I sell you my corn you will remark this, that it is not for the labour of nature that I ask you to pay, but for my own.
But, as you state the case, manufactured commodities are no longer the exclusive products of labour. Is the manufacturer not beholden to nature in his processes? Does he not avail himself of the assistance of the steam-engine, of the pressure of the atmosphere, just as, with the assistance of the plough, I avail myself of its humidity? Has he created the laws of gravitation, of the transmission of forces, of affinity47?
The Petitioners: Well, this is the case of the wool over again; but coal is assuredly the work, the exclusive work, of nature. It is indeed a product upon which no human labour has ever been bestowed.
M. de Saint-Cricq: Yes; nature has undoubtedly created the coal, but labour has imparted value to it. For the millions of years during which it was buried 100 fathoms48 under ground, unknown to everybody, it was destitute49 of value. It was necessary to search for it—that is labour; it was necessary to send it to market—that is additional labour. Then the price you pay for it in the market is nothing else than the remuneration of the labour of mining and transport.*
* I do not particularize the parts of the remuneration
reasons:—1st, Because, on looking at the thing more
closely, you will see that the remuneration always resolves
itself into the reimbursement51 of advances or the payment of
include not only the wages of the workmen, but the
legitimate53 recompense of everything which co-operates in the
work of production. 3dly (and above all), Because the
production of manufactured products is, like that of raw
most delicate processes of manufacture, as to the rudest
operations of agriculture.
Thus far we see that M. de Saint-Cricq has the best of the argument; that the value of raw materials, like that of manufactured commodities, represents the cost of production, that is to say, the labour worked up in them; that it is not possible to conceive of a product possessing value, which has had no human labour bestowed on it; that the distinction made by the petitioners is futile57 in theory; that, as the basis of an unequal distribution of favours, it would be iniquitous58 in practice, since the result would be that one-third of our countrymen, who happened to be engaged in manufactures, would obtain the advantages of monopoly, on the alleged59 ground that they produce by labour, whilst the other two-thirds—namely, the agricultural population—would be abandoned to competition under the pretext60 that they produce without labour.
The rejoinder to this, I am quite sure, will be, that a nation derives61 more advantages from importing what are called raw materials, whether produced by labour or not, and exporting manufactured commodities. This will be repeated and insisted on, and it is an opinion very widely accredited62.
"The more abundant raw materials are," says the Bordeaux petition, "the more are manufactures promoted and multiplied."
"Raw materials," says the same document in another place, "open up an unlimited63 field of work for the inhabitants of the countries into which they are imported."
"Raw materials," says the Havre petition, "constituting as they do the elements of labour, must be submitted to a different treatment, and be gradually admitted at the lowest rate of duty." The same petition expresses a wish that manufactured products should be admitted, not gradually, but after an indefinite lapse64 of time, not at the lowest rate of duty, but at a duty of 20 per cent.
"Among other articles, the low price and abundance of which are a necessity," says the Lyons petition, "manufacturers include all raw materials."
All this is founded on an illusion.
We have seen that all value represents labour. Now, it is quite true that manufacturing labour increases tenfold, sometimes a hundredfold, the value of the raw material; that is to say, it yields ten times, a hundred times, more profit to the nation. Hence men are led to reason thus: The production of a hundredweight of iron brings in a gain of only fifteen shillings to workmen of all classes. The conversion65 of this hundredweight of iron into the mainsprings of watches raises their earnings66 to ￡500; and will any one venture to say that a nation has not a greater interest to secure for its labour a gain of five hundred pounds than a gain of fifteen shillings? We do not exchange a hundredweight of unwrought iron for a hundredweight of watch-springs, nor a hundredweight of unwashed wool for a hundredweight of cashmere shawls; but we exchange a certain value of one of these materials for an equal value of another. Now, to exchange equal value for equal value is to exchange equal labour for equal labour. It is not true, then, that a nation which sells five pounds' worth of wrought67 fabrics or watch-springs, gains more than a nation which sells five pounds' worth of wool or iron.
In a country where no law can be voted, where no tax can be imposed, but with the consent of those whose dealings the law is to regulate, and whose pockets the tax is to affect, the public cannot be robbed without first being imposed on and misled. Our ignorance is the raw material of every extortion from which we suffer, and we may be certain beforehand, that every sophism is the precursor68 of an act of plunder69. My good friends I when you detect a sophism in a petition, button up your breeches-pocket, for you may be sure that this is the mark aimed at.
Let us see, then, what is the real object secretly aimed at by the shipowners of Bordeaux and Havre, and the manufacturers of Lyons, and which is concealed70 under the distinction which they attempt to draw between agricultural and manufactured commodities.
"It is principally this first class (that which comprises raw materials, upon which no human labour has been bestowed) which affords," say the Bordeaux petitioners, "the principal support to our merchant shipping71...." In principle, a wise economy would not tax this class.... The second (commodities partly wrought up) may be taxed to a certain extent. The third (commodities which call for no more exertion72 of labour) we regard as the fittest subjects of taxation.
The Havre petitioners "consider that it is indispensable to reduce gradually the duty on raw materials to the lowest rate, in order that our manufacturers may gradually find employment for the shipping interest, which furnishes them with the first and indispensable materials of labour."
The manufacturers could not remain behindhand in politeness towards the shipowners. So the Lyons petition asks for the free introduction of raw materials, "in order to prove," as they express it, "that the interests of the manufacturing are not always opposed to those of the maritime73 towns."
No; but then the interests of both, understood as the petitioners understand them, are in direct opposition74 to the interests of agriculture and of consumers.
Well, gentlemen, we have come at length to see what you are aiming at, and the object of your subtle economical distinctions. You desire that the law should restrain the transport of finished goods across the ocean, in order that the more costly75 conveyance76 of raw and rough materials, bulky, and mixed up with refuse, should afford greater scope for your merchant shipping, and more largely employ your marine77 resources. This is what you call a wise economy.
On the same principle, why do you not ask that the pines of Russia should be brought to you with their branches, bark, and roots; the silver of Mexico in its mineral state; the hides of Buenos Ayres sticking to the bones of the diseased carcases from which they have been torn?
I expect that railway shareholders78, the moment they are in a majority in the Chambers79, will proceed to make a law forbidding the manufacture of the brandy which is consumed in Paris. And why not? Would not a law enforcing the conveyance of ten casks of wine for every cask of brandy afford Parisian industry the indispensable materials of its labour, and give employment to our locomotive resources?
How long will men shut their eyes to this simple truth?
Manufactures, shipping, labour—all have for end the general, the public good; to create useless industries, to favour superfluous80 conveyances81, to support a greater amount of labour than is necessary, not for the good of the public, but at the expense of the public—is to realize a true petitio principii. It is not labour which is desirable for its own sake; it is consumption. All labour without a commensurate result is a loss. You may as well pay sailors for pitching stones into the sea as pay them for transporting useless refuse. Thus, we arrive at the result to which all economic sophisms, numerous as they are, conduct us, namely, confounding the means with the end, and developing the one at the expense of the other.
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1
advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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sophism
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| n.诡辩 | |
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disseminated
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| 散布，传播( disseminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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dubs
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| v.给…起绰号( dub的第三人称单数 )；把…称为；配音；复制 | |
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retard
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| n.阻止，延迟；vt.妨碍，延迟，使减速 | |
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7
invoke
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| v.求助于(神、法律)；恳求，乞求 | |
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8
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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9
doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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10
alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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11
niggardly
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| adj.吝啬的，很少的 | |
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12
overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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13
petitioners
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| n.请求人，请愿人( petitioner的名词复数 )；离婚案原告 | |
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14
tacking
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| （帆船）抢风行驶，定位焊[铆]紧钉 | |
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15
prohibition
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| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
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16
par
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| n.标准，票面价值，平均数量；adj.票面的，平常的，标准的 | |
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17
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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18
profess
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| v.声称，冒称，以...为业，正式接受入教，表明信仰 | |
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19
restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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20
restriction
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| n.限制，约束 | |
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21
chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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22
taxation
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| n.征税，税收，税金 | |
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23
superseding
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| 取代，接替( supersede的现在分词 ) | |
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24
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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25
tout
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| v.推销，招徕；兜售；吹捧，劝诱 | |
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26
travail
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| n.阵痛；努力 | |
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27
enumerate
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| v.列举，计算，枚举，数 | |
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28
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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29
fabrics
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| 织物( fabric的名词复数 )； 布； 构造； （建筑物的）结构（如墙、地面、屋顶）：质地 | |
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30
fabric
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| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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31
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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32
aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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33
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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34
reapers
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| n.收割者，收获者( reaper的名词复数 )；收割机 | |
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35
miller
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| n.磨坊主 | |
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36
baker
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| n.面包师 | |
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37
intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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38
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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39
provender
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| n.刍草；秣料 | |
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40
yarn
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| n.纱，纱线，纺线；奇闻漫谈，旅行轶事 | |
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41
furrow
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| n.沟；垄沟；轨迹；车辙；皱纹 | |
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42
accomplishment
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| n.完成，成就，（pl.）造诣，技能 | |
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43
excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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44
concurs
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| 同意（concur的第三人称单数形式） | |
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45
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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46
constrained
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| adj.束缚的,节制的 | |
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affinity
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| n.亲和力，密切关系 | |
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48
fathoms
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| 英寻( fathom的名词复数 ) | |
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49
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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50
lessee
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| n.（房地产的）租户 | |
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reimbursement
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| n.偿还，退还 | |
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anterior
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| adj.较早的；在前的 | |
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53
legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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auxiliary
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| adj.辅助的，备用的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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frivolous
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| adj.轻薄的；轻率的 | |
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futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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iniquitous
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| adj.不公正的；邪恶的；高得出奇的 | |
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alleged
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| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
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pretext
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| n.借口，托词 | |
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derives
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| v.得到( derive的第三人称单数 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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62
accredited
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| adj.可接受的；可信任的；公认的；质量合格的v.相信( accredit的过去式和过去分词 )；委托；委任；把…归结于 | |
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63
unlimited
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| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
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64
lapse
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| n.过失，流逝，失效，抛弃信仰，间隔；vi.堕落，停止，失效，流逝；vt.使失效 | |
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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earnings
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| n.工资收人；利润，利益，所得 | |
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wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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precursor
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| n.先驱者；前辈；前任；预兆；先兆 | |
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plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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70
concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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71
shipping
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| n.船运（发货，运输，乘船） | |
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exertion
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| n.尽力，努力 | |
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73
maritime
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| adj.海的，海事的，航海的，近海的，沿海的 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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conveyance
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| n.(不动产等的)转让，让与；转让证书；传送；运送；表达；（正）运输工具 | |
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marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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shareholders
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| n.股东( shareholder的名词复数 ) | |
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chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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80
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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conveyances
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| n.传送( conveyance的名词复数 )；运送；表达；运输工具 | |
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