We do meet with men who, while they rejoice over the revelation of any great invention, favor nevertheless the protective policy; but such men are very inconsistent.
What is the objection they adduce against free trade? That it causes us to seek from foreign and more easy production, what would otherwise be the result of home production. In a word, that it injures domestic industry.
On the same principle, can it not be objected to machinery, that it accomplishes through natural agents what would otherwise be the result of manual labor5, and that it is thus injurious to human labor?
The foreign laborer6, enjoying greater facilities of production than the French laborer, is, with regard to the latter, a veritable economical machine, which crushes him by competition. Thus, a piece of machinery capable of executing any work at a less price than could be done by any given number of hands, is, as regards these hands, in the position of a foreign competitor, who paralyzes them by his rivalry7.
If then it be judicious8 to protect home labor against the competition of foreign labor, it cannot be less so to protect human labor against mechanical labor.
Whoever adheres to the protective system, ought not, if his brain be possessed9 of any logical powers, to stop at the prohibition of foreign produce, but should extend this prohibition to the produce of the loom11 and of the plough.
I approve therefore of the logic10 of those who, whilst they cry out against the inundation12 of foreign merchandise, have the courage to declaim equally against the excessive production resulting from the inventive power of mind.
Of this number is Mr. de Saint Chamans. "One of the strongest arguments, (says he) which can be adduced against free trade, and the too extensive employment of machines, is, that many workmen are deprived of work, either by foreign competition, which depresses manufactures, or by machinery, which takes the place of men in workshops."
Mr. de St. Chamans saw clearly the analogy, or rather the identity which exists between importation and machinery, and was, therefore, in favor of proscribing13 both. There is some pleasure in having to do with intrepid14 arguers, who, even in error, thus carry through a chain of reasoning.
But let us look at the difficulty into which they are here led.
If it be true, à priori, that the domain15 of invention, and that of labor, can be extended only to the injury of one another, it would follow that the fewest workmen would be employed in countries (Lancashire, for instance) where there is the most machinery. And if it be, on the contrary, proved, that machinery and manual labor coexist to a greater extent among rich nations than among savages16, it must necessarily follow, that these two powers do not interfere17 with one another.
Either the inventions of man do not injure labor; and this, from general facts, would appear to be the case, for there exists more of both among the English and the French, than among the Sioux and the Cherokees. If such be the fact, I have gone upon a wrong track, although unconscious at what point. I have wandered from my road, and I would commit high treason against humanity, were I to introduce such an error into the legislation of my country.
Or else the results of the inventions of mind limit manual labor, as would appear to be proved from limited facts; for every day we see some machine rendering19 unnecessary the labor of twenty, or perhaps a hundred workmen. If this be the case, I am forced to acknowledge, as a fact, the existence of a flagrant, eternal, and incurable20 antagonism21 between the intellectual and the physical power of man; between his improvement and his welfare. I cannot avoid feeling that the Creator should have bestowed22 upon man either reason or bodily strength; moral force, or brutal23 force; and that it has been a bitter mockery to confer upon him faculties24 which must inevitably25 counteract26 and destroy one another.
This is an important difficulty, and how is it put aside? By this singular apothegm:
"In political economy there are no absolute principles."
There are no principles! Why, what does this mean, but that there are no facts? Principles are only formulas, which recapitulate27 a whole class of well-proved facts.
Machinery and Importation must certainly have effects. These effects must be either good or bad. Here there may be a difference of opinion as to which is the correct conclusion, but whichever is adopted, it must be capable of being submitted to the formula of one or other of these principles, viz.: Machinery is a good, or, Machinery is an evil. Importations are beneficial, or, Importations are injurious. Bat to say there are no principles, is certainly the last degree of debasement to which the human mind can lower itself, and I confess that I blush for my country, when I hear so monstrous28 an absurdity29 uttered before, and approved by, the French Chambers30, the élite of the nation, who thus justify31 themselves for imposing32 upon the country laws, of the merits or demerits of which they are perfectly33 ignorant.
But, it may be said to me, finish, then, by destroying the Sophism34. Prove to us that machines are not injurious to human labor, nor importations to national labor.
In a work of this nature, such demonstrations35 cannot be very complete. My aim is rather to point out than to explain difficulties, and to excite reflection rather than to satisfy it. The mind never attains36 to a firm conviction which is not wrought37 out by its own labor. I will, however, make an effort to put it upon the right track.
The adversaries38 of importations and of machinery are misled by allowing themselves to form too hasty a judgment39 from immediate40 and transitory effects, instead of following these up to their general and final consequences.
The immediate effect of an ingenious piece of machinery, is, that it renders superfluous41, in the production of any given result, a certain quantity of manual labor. But its action does not stop here. This result being obtained at less labor, is given to the public at a less price. The amount thus saved to the buyers, enables them to procure42 other comforts, and thus to encourage general labor, precisely43 in proportion to the saving they have made upon the one article which the machine has given to them at an easier price. Thus the standard of labor is not lowered, though that of comfort is raised.
Let me endeavor to render this double fact more striking by an example.
I suppose that ten million of hats, at fifteen francs each, are yearly consumed in France. This would give to those employed in this manufacture one hundred and fifty millions. A machine is invented which enables the manufacturer to furnish hats at ten francs. The sum given to the maintenance of this branch of industry, is thus reduced (if we suppose the consumption not to be increased) to one hundred millions. But the other fifty millions are not, therefore, withdrawn44 from the maintenance of human labor. The buyers of hats are, from the surplus saved upon the price of that article, enabled to satisfy other wants, and thus, in the same proportion, to encourage general industry. John buys a pair of shoes; James, a book; Jerome, an article of furniture, etc. Human labor, as a whole, still receives the encouragement of the whole one hundred and fifty millions, while the consumers, with the same supply of hats as before, receive also the increased number of comforts accruing45 from the fifty millions, which the use of the machine has been the means of saving to them. These comforts are the net gain which France has received from the invention. It is a gratuitous46 gift; a tribute exacted from nature by the genius of man. We grant that, during this process, a certain sum of labor will have been displaced, forced to change its direction; but we cannot allow that it has been destroyed or even diminished.
The case is the same with regard to importations. I will resume my hypothesis.
France, according to our supposition, manufactured ten millions of hats at fifteen francs each. Let us now suppose that a foreign producer brings them into our market at ten francs. I maintain that national labor is thus in no wise diminished. It will be obliged to produce the equivalent of the hundred millions which go to pay for the ten millions of hats at ten francs, and then there remains47 to each buyer five francs, saved on the purchase of his hat, or, in total, fifty millions, which serve for the acquisition of other comforts, and the encouragement of other labor.
The mass of labor remains, then, what it was, and the additional comforts accruing from the fifty millions saved in the purchase of hats, are the net profit of importation or free trade.
It is no argument to try and alarm us by a picture of the sufferings which, in this hypothesis, would result from the displacement48 or change of labor.
For, if prohibition had never existed, labor would have classed itself in accordance with the laws of trade, and no displacement would have taken place.
If prohibition has led to an artificial and unproductive classification of labor, then it is prohibition, and not free trade, which is responsible for the inevitable49 displacement which must result in the transition from evil to good.
It is a rather singular argument to maintain that, because an abuse which has been permitted a temporary existence, cannot be corrected without wounding the interests of those who have profited by it, it ought, therefore, to claim perpetual duration.
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1
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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prohibition
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| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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laborer
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| n.劳动者，劳工 | |
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rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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judicious
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| adj.明智的，明断的，能作出明智决定的 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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loom
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| n.织布机，织机；v.隐现，(危险、忧虑等)迫近 | |
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inundation
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| n.the act or fact of overflowing | |
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proscribing
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| v.正式宣布（某事物）有危险或被禁止( proscribe的现在分词 ) | |
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intrepid
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| adj.无畏的，刚毅的 | |
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domain
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| n.(活动等)领域，范围；领地，势力范围 | |
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savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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dilemma
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| n.困境，进退两难的局面 | |
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rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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incurable
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| adj.不能医治的，不能矫正的，无救的；n.不治的病人，无救的人 | |
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antagonism
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| n.对抗，敌对，对立 | |
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bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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counteract
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| vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消 | |
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recapitulate
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| v.节述要旨，择要说明 | |
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monstrous
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| adj.巨大的；恐怖的；可耻的，丢脸的 | |
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absurdity
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| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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sophism
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| n.诡辩 | |
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demonstrations
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| 证明( demonstration的名词复数 )； 表明； 表达； 游行示威 | |
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attains
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的第三人称单数 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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adversaries
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| n.对手，敌手( adversary的名词复数 ) | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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42
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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44
withdrawn
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| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
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accruing
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| v.增加( accrue的现在分词 )；（通过自然增长）产生；获得；（使钱款、债务）积累 | |
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46
gratuitous
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| adj.无偿的，免费的；无缘无故的，不必要的 | |
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47
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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48
displacement
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| n.移置，取代，位移，排水量 | |
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49
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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